While the contributors to Problematizing Blackness (2003), edited by Percy Hintzen and Jean Muteba Rahier, also seek to expand and subvert dominant definitions of blackness in the United States, they would not define themselves as part of the 'post-black' movement. Instead, like Hintzen (born in Guyana) and Rahier (born in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo and raised in Brussels), these scholars, all of whom teach in the United States of America but were born in Africa and raised either there or in Europe, relate how they had to learn what 'blackness' meant to African Americans in the United States; this is an ironic state of affairs, considering that so many definitions of black American identity almost always point to Africa as the originary 'source' of their culture, rituals and social practices (what one of the contributors, Carolle Charles, dubs 'being black twice'). Yet the point that is made by contributors such as Olúfémi Táíwò (This Prison Called My Skin), Sarah Manyika (Oyinbo), and Carolle Charles (Being Black Twice) is that, far from having a universal definition, Middle Passage blackness carries many assumptions that are tied to the history of the transatlantic slave trade, or Middle Passage. At the other end of the spectrum, American and Caribbean anthropologist Jemima Pierre argues in The Predicament of Blackness: Postcolonial Ghana and the Politics of Race (2012) that, far from being a 'nonracialized space', Europe's African colonies were racialized to such a degree that postcolonial Africans are actually familiar with a similar, if not the same, paradigm of blackness that operates in the 'Black Atlantic'.