Any collective plans for a return were dependent upon certain logistical resources, the mobilization of capital and negotiation with the local authorities. The construction (or purchase) of boats depended upon a presumptive capacity for the accumulation of wealth by the emancipated Makoa, who did not shirk from paid employment. Within a few decades (1880-1900), the Makoa at Morondava accumulated 300 (Danish) krone, which were deposited, through the offices of pastor Aas, at a private bank in Stavanger in Norway (Aas, 1923). In 1889, a number of the Makoa at Morondava, also converted to the Lutheran faith, endeavoured to cross the Mozambique Channel, with the support of missionary networks. A group of 26 Makoa expressed their intent to travel to Natal, where the Norwegian mission was established. This request was rejected by the Malagasy authorities. ${ }^{14}$ Following the emancipation of 1877, the manamboninabitra (officers) posted in the provinces received an order which forbade the Masombika from leaving the territory belonging to the Kingdom of Madagascar, on the pretext of preventing them from being exported beyond the sea. ${ }^{15}$ The most propitious times to leave the island came during periods of crisis, when the tight grip of government authority was relaxed. In February 1893, the west coast of Madagascar was struck by a terrible cyclone that caused several hundred fatalities. 'Under these desperate conditions, the Makoa returned to their former dream of leaving Morondava and travelling back to their African homeland, but this notion did not result in a mass exodus' (Aas, 1923, p. 73). Pastor Aas suggests that some Makoa would have attempted to repeat their initially enforced crossing in reverse, all the way back from Madagascar to the interior of the African continent. After 1896, the French administration imposed conditions which rendered any departure from the colony impossible. ${ }^{16}$ The Makoa therefore experienced an enforced long-term settlement in Madagascar.  
[^0]