9 For a critique of occidentalist geohistorical categories, see Coronil, Balibar, and Trouillot.
10 The question of whether anti-black racism existed before capitalist modernity has been subject to debate, especially since the work of Senegalese scholar Cheik Antia Diop. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to contribute to such debate. I will argue that racial discourse, race as a category, and racism as a system of domination are modern phenomena. For arguments on both sides of the debate see, among others, Diop, Du Bois, Fredrickson, Smedley, Lott, Martínez, Moore, Quijano.
11 Forbes explores different significations of blackness in a variety of European languages in the late medieval and early modern periods.