Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that answer the question.
Query: When was the IP address concept first developed?
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.[2] However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995,[3] and standardized in December 1998.[4] In July 2017, a final definition of the protocol was published.[5] IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
Round-robin DNS is often used to load balance requests between a number of Web servers. For example, a company has one domain name and three identical copies of the same web site residing on three servers with three different IP addresses. When one user accesses the home page it will be sent to the first IP address. The second user who accesses the home page will be sent to the next IP address, and the third user will be sent to the third IP address. In each case, once the IP address is given out, it goes to the end of the list. The fourth user, therefore, will be sent to the first IP address, and so forth.
The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems, including IP addresses, for computers on the network. IP enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ≈4.3 billion (10) hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011, when the global address allocation pool was exhausted. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
URI DNSBLs were created when it was determined that much spam made it past spam filters during that short time frame between the first use of a spam-sending IP address and the point where that sending IP address was first listed on major sending-IP-based DNSBLs.
Cisco "RAPT" implementation is port address translation (PAT) or NAT overloading, and maps multiple private IP addresses to a single public IP address. Multiple addresses can be mapped to a single address because each private address is tracked by a port number. PAT uses unique source port numbers on the inside global IP address to distinguish between translations. The port number are 16-bit integers. The total number of internal addresses that can be translated to one external address could theoretically be as high as 65,536 per IP address. Realistically, the number of ports that can be assigned a single IP address is around 4000. PAT attempts to preserve the original source port. If this source port is already used, PAT assigns the first available port number starting from the beginning of the appropriate port group 0-511, 512-1023, or 1024-65535. When there are no more ports available and there is more than one external IP address configured, PAT moves to the next IP address to try to allocate the original source port again. This process continues until it runs out of available ports and external IP addresses.
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be globally unique. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved.
The first specification of IP tunneling was in RFC 1075, which described DVMRP, the first IP multicast routing protocol. Because multicast used special IPv4 addresses, testing DVMRP required a way to get IP datagrams across portions of the Internet that did not yet recognize multicast addresses. This was solved by IP tunneling. The first approach to IP tunneling used an IP Loose Source Route and Record (LSRR) Option to hide the multicast address from the non-multicast aware routers. A multicast-aware destination router would remove the LSRR option from the packet and restore the multicast IP address to the packet's IP destination field. The other approach in the DVMRP specification was IP in IP, as described above. IP in IP soon became the preferred approach, and was later put to use in the Mbone.
Terminals attached to TCP/IP networks are addressed using IP addresses. There are different types of IP address, but the most common is IP Version 4. Each unique address consists of 4 integers between 0 and 255, usually separated by dots when written down, e.g. 82.131.34.56.
Advanced Camouflage
When a hacker is exploiting a program his IP address can be written to a log file. Camouflaging the log files so that his IP address can not be detected is shown in the book. When an IP address is hidden, it is called spoofing the IP address.
The concept of Discord came from CEO Jason Citron, who had founded OpenFeint, a social gaming platform for mobile games. He eventually sold OpenFeint to GREE in 2011 for US$104 million, which he used to found Hammer & Chisel, a game development studio, in 2012. Their original product was "Fates Forever", released in 2014, which Citron anticipated to be the first MOBA game on mobile platforms, but it was not commercially successful due to low popularity. However, during the development process, Citron noted the difficulties that his team had had when trying to play other representative games like "Final Fantasy XIV" and "League of Legends" to work out gameplay concepts, specifically highlighting problems of current voice over IP (VoIP) options that were available. Some VoIP options required players to share various IP addresses just to connect, while other services like Skype or TeamSpeak were resource-heavy and had known security problems. This led the developers towards developing a chat service that was much friendlier to use based on more modern technology.
During the first decade of the Internet after the invention of the Domain Name System (DNS) it became apparent that the devised system based on the classful network scheme of allocating the IP address space and the routing of IP packets was not scalable. This led to the successive development of subnetting and CIDR. The network class distinctions were removed, and the new system was described as being "classless", with respect to the old system, which became known as "classful". In 1993, the Internet Engineering Task Force published a new set of standards, and , to define this new concept of allocation of IP address blocks and new methods of routing IPv4 packets. An updated version of the specification was published as in 2006.
Each pod in Kubernetes is assigned a unique "Pod IP address" within the cluster, which allows applications to use ports without the risk of conflict. Within the pod, all containers can reference each other on localhost, but a container within one pod has no way of directly addressing another container within another pod; for that, it has to use the Pod IP Address. An application developer should never use the Pod IP Address though, to reference / invoke a capability in another pod, as Pod IP addresses are ephemeral - the specific pod that they are referencing may be assigned to another Pod IP address on restart. Instead, they should use a reference to a Service, which holds a reference to the target pod at the specific Pod IP Address.
On a website, an IP address block can prevent a disruptive address from access, though a warning and/or account block may be used first. Dynamic allocation of IP addresses by ISPs can complicate incoming IP address blocking, rendering it difficult to block a specific user without blocking many IP addresses (blocks of IP address ranges), thereby creating collateral damage.
IP address blocking can be used to restrict access to or from a particular geographic area—for example, the syndication of content to a specific region. To achieve this, IP addresses are mapped to the countries they have been assigned to. This has been used for example to target Nigerian IP addresses due to the perception that all business originating from the country is fraudulent, thus making it extremely difficult for legitimate businesses based in the country to interact with their counterparts in the rest of the world. To make purchases abroad, Nigerians must rely on proxy servers to disguise the true origin of an Internet request.
Masks are used with IP addresses in IP ACLs (Access Control Lists) to specify what should be permitted and denied. To configure IP addresses on interfaces, masks start with 255 and have the large values on the left side: for example, IP address 209.165.202.129 with a 255.255.255.224 mask. Masks for IP ACLs are the reverse: for example, mask 0.0.0.255. This is sometimes called an inverse mask or a wildcard mask. When the value of the mask is broken down into binary (0s and 1s), the results determine which address bits are to be considered in processing the traffic. A 0 indicates that the address bits must be considered (exact match); a 1 in the mask is a "don't care". This table further explains the concept.
Key concepts in IP multicast include an IP multicast group address, a multicast distribution tree and receiver driven tree creation.
According to IEEE Std 802-2001 section 6.2.3 "MAC sublayer", the primary functions performed by the MAC layer are:In the case of Ethernet, according to 802.3-2002 section 4.1.4, the functions required of a MAC are:The local network addresses used in IEEE 802 networks and FDDI networks are called media access control addresses; they are based on the addressing scheme that was used in early Ethernet implementations. A MAC address is intended as a unique serial number. MAC addresses are typically assigned to network interface hardware at the time of manufacture. The most significant part of the address identifies the manufacturer, who assigns the remainder of the address, thus provide a potentially unique address. This makes it possible for frames to be delivered on a network link that interconnects hosts by some combination of repeaters, hubs, bridges and switches, but not by network layer routers. Thus, for example, when an IP packet reaches its destination (sub)network, the destination IP address (a layer 3 or network layer concept) is resolved with the Address Resolution Protocol for IPv4, or by Neighbor Discovery Protocol (IPv6) into the MAC address (a layer 2 concept) of the destination host.
The ARP cache (Address Resolution Protocol) is a collection of ARP entries (mostly dynamic) that are created when an IP address is resolved to a MAC address (so the computer can effectively communicate with the IP address). ARP cache has the disadvantage of being used by hackers and cyber attackers. ARP cache helps the attackers hide behind a fake IP address and do the harm without being caught. Beyond the fact that ARP cache helps the attackers but it also prevents the attacks by "distinguish between low level IP and IP based vulnerabilities".
When an Internet Protocol (IP) datagram is sent from one host to another in a local area network, the destination IP address must be resolved to a MAC address for transmission via the data link layer. When another host's IP address is known, and its MAC address is needed, a broadcast packet is sent out on the local network. This packet is known as an "ARP request". The destination machine with the IP in the ARP request then responds with an "ARP reply" that contains the MAC address for that IP.
RFC 3927 describes a common method to automatically assign IP addresses, which is used by most RTP-MIDI compatible products. Once connected to the IP network, such a device can assign itself an IP address, with automatic IP address conflict resolution. If the device follows port assignation recommendation from the RTP specification, the device becomes "Plug&Play" from the network point of view. It is then possible to create an RTP-MIDI network entirely without needing to define any IP address and/or UDP port numbers. It must be noted however that these methods are generally reserved for small setups. Complete automation of the network configuration is generally avoided on big setups, since the localization of faulty devices can become complex, because there will be no direct relationship between the IP address which has been selected by the Zeroconf system and the physical location of the device. A minimum configuration would be then to assign a name to the device before connecting it to the network, which voids the "true Plug&Play" concept in that case.
Name-based and IP-based virtual hosting can be combined: a server may have multiple IP addresses and serve multiple names on some or all of those IP addresses. This technique can be useful when using SSL/TLS with wildcard certificates. For example, if a server operator had two certificates, one for *.example.com and one for *.example.net, the operator could serve foo.example.com and bar.example.com off the same IP address but would need a separate IP address for baz.example.net.
When an instance is created, an ephemeral external IP address is automatically assigned to the instance by default. This address is attached to the instance for the life of the instance and is released once the instance has been terminated. GCE also provides mechanism to reserve and attach static IPs to the VMs. An ephemeral IP address can be promoted to a static IP address.
An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts.[12][13] If one of the devices is the gateway, the network will be crippled. When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault.[14][15][16][17][18]
Initially, users are able to choose a range of IP addresses for their VPC. Within this range, users can assign various private and public IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to instances in the VPC in order to communicate with the Internet and other instances of VPCs. These addresses are assigned to specific instances rather than the user's entire VPC account.
Static assignment of Public IP addresses is not possible, instead the address is assigned and unassigned in certain cases, causing the address of an instance to change. When a consistent IP address is needed, a third type of IP Address, Elastic IP addresses, can be used in place of Public IP addresses.
When rules are broken several steps are commonly taken. First, a warning is usually given; this is commonly in the form of a "private message" but recent development has made it possible for it to be integrated into the software. Subsequent to this, if the act is ignored and warnings do not work, the member is – usually – first exiled from the forum for a number of days. Denying someone access to the site is called a "ban". Bans can mean the person can no longer log in or even view the site anymore. If the offender, after the warning sentence, repeats the offense, another ban is given, usually this time a longer one. Continuous harassment of the site eventually leads to a permanent ban. In most cases, this means simply that the account is locked. In extreme cases where the offender – after being permanently banned – creates another account and continues to harass the site, administrators will apply an IP address ban or block (this can also be applied at the server level): If the IP address is static, the machine of the offender is prevented from accessing the site. In some extreme circumstances, IP address range bans or country bans can be applied; this is usually for political, licensing, or other reasons. See also: Block (Internet), IP address blocking, and Internet censorship.