Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that can help answer the question.
Query: Who developed stainless steel?
In 1912, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times.[27] The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in 1929.[35] Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[36]
Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels (for additional structural strength). This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the early Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the Budd Company (USA), which has been licensed to Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel. India is developing its rail infrastructure and has started to put new stainless steel coaches in service.[71] South Africa is also commissioning stainless steel coaches.[72]
Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water[57] due to their excellent corrosion resistance. Applications include a range of conditions from plumbing,[58] potable[59] and waste water treatment[60] to desalination.[61] Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are standard materials of construction in contact with water. However, with increasing chloride contents higher alloyed stainless steels such as Type 2205 and super austenitic and super duplex stainless steels are utilized.[62]
Stainless Steel Studios (SSSI) was a video game development company, started in 1997 by Rick Goodman and Dara-Lynn Pelechatz. The company was based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and focused on the development of real-time strategy games.
Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be 40/60. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steels Types 304 and 316.
The stainless steel crowns are selected by tooth type, location and size (see image 2). The tooth will be measured to identify the most suitable size of stainless steel crown. The clinician will try the stainless steel crown prior to its cementation, to ensure that it fits correctly, and establish if an alternative size or contouring of the stainless steel crown is required. When placing the stainless steel crown within the mouth, the airways will generally be protected by placing gauze around the site, or the clinician may secure the stainless steel with tape/Elastoplast. Once a correct size/fit is established, the crown may be adhered to the tooth. The stainless steel crown is secured to the tooth by partially filling the stainless steel crown with a self curing glass ionomer cement and then placing over the tooth. The stainless steel crown should “click” securely into place. The patient is required to bite firmly onto a cotton roll or bite stick to secure it in the correct position whilst it sets. The excess of glass ionomer cement will be wiped off or removed with knotted floss from between the interproximal contact, and a sickle probe from the buccal gingival sulcus on the buccal and lingual/palatal surfaces.
440 and 420 stainless steels, known also by the name "Cutlery Stainless Steel", are high carbon steels alloyed with chromium. They have very good corrosion resistance compared to other cutlery steels, but their corrosion resistance is inferior to 316 stainless. Biomedical cutting instruments are often made from 440 or 420 stainless due to its high hardness coupled with acceptable corrosion resistance. This type of stainless steel may be slightly magnetic.
The E. G. Budd Company of Philadelphia recognized the important metallurgical characteristics of 18/8 stainless steel (known today as SAE 304 austenitic stainless steel) and developed a spot welding process to take advantage of the oxidized layer on the surface of stainless steel. Heat treating the 18-8 stainless steel leaves the metal with non-magnetic and ductile properties. Repeatedly reheating the metal to 1000–1100 °C impairs the mechanical and chemical properties of the metal. The metal becomes susceptible to corrosion due to carbide precipitation, and loses fatigue resistance. The important factor in controlling the metal's properties is the dwell time at those temperatures. Using a controlled time element and recorder, a power supply with smooth current, and very brief high currents, a satisfactory spot weld may be produced.
Argon oxygen decarburization Corrugated stainless steel tubing Crucible Industries List of blade materials List of steel producers Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number Marine grade stainless Pilling–Bedworth ratio Rouging Stainless steel fiber Stainless steel soap
The Edward G. Budd Manufacturing Corporation, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was a major manufacturer of railroad cars, which resulted in significant experience in working with stainless steel. In 1930, the company made its first foray into the aviation industry by signing contracts to manufacture aircraft wheels & stainless steel wing ribs. A close friend of Edward Budd, Enea Bossi joined the company as the head of stainless steel research to supervise the design and construction of the 4-seat Budd BB-1 "Pioneer" – the first aircraft with a structure built out of stainless steel . Occurring in 1931, this was the first aircraft for the Budd Company. Built under Restricted License NR749, its design utilized concepts developed for the Savoia-Marchetti S-31 and was powered by a single Kinner C-5 motor.
Stainless steel is 100% recyclable.[84][85][86] An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material[87] of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes.[88] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80–180kg in more developed countries and 15kg in less-developed countries.
Galvanic corrosion (also called ' dissimilar metal corrosion') refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. The most common electrolyte is water, ranging from fresh water to seawater. When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. Stainless steel, due to its superior corrosion resistance relative to most other metals, including steel and aluminum, becomes the cathode accelerating the corrosion of the anodic metal. An example is the corrosion of aluminum rivets fastening stainless steel sheets in contact with water.[18]. The relative surfaces of the anode and the cathode are important. In the above example, the surface of the rivets will be small compared to that of the stainless steel sheet. However if stainless steel fasteners are used to assemble aluminum sheets, glavanic corrosion will be much slower because the galvanic current density on the aluminum surface will be order of magnitude smaller. A similar, but frequent mistake, is to assemble stainless steel with carbon steel fasteners; wheras using stainless steel to fasten carbon steel steel plates is usually OK..[5]
They are generally made from carbon steel or stainless steel. Stainless steel belts are corrosion resistant and provide excellent surface quality. Stainless steel belts are used primarily in the chemical, food, rubber, plastic, wood, and laminate industries. Carbon steel belts are energy efficient and ideal for applications necessitating radiant heating of products or in high-temperature applications that might exceed the annealing temperatures of stainless steel belts also carbon steel belts can more evenly distributed heat since most stainless steel alloys are comparatively poor heat conductors. Carbon steel belts are used primarily in food processing, transport, and bake ovens. Textured Steel is also a commonly found belt material. The main purpose of using textured steel material is for its non-stick capabilities. This works well in the laminate industry.
The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DeLorean DMC-12 production automobile used Type-304 stainless steel body panels over a glass-reinforced plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially made of stainless steel.
Avesta Sheffield was acquired 2001 and consists of a stainless steel mill with melting shop, hot rolling for heavy plates, hot rolling for 2000 mm width coils by Steckel mill and cold rolling mills. Avesta developed special stainless steel grades, high-alloy austenitic and duplex grades, optimized for good formability, weldability and high corrosion resistance.
Avesta has a long history in steelmaking, as does Sheffield in the UK where stainless steel was invented.
Austenitic stainless steel is a specific type of stainless steel alloy. Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into four main types: "austenitic", "ferritic," "martensitic and duplex." These stainless steels possess austenite as their primary crystalline structure (face centered cubic). This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the austenite stabilizing elements nickel, manganese and nitrogen. Due to their crystalline structure austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment and are essentially non-magnetic.
When submerged a stainless steel with a PREN > 40 is typically specified as the minimum for resistance to seawater. Stainless steels, such as super austenitic stainless steels (for example UNS S31254 or N08367), or super duplex stainless steels (for example UNS S32760 or S32750) meet this requirement.
Austenitic stainless steels Cr - Ni (also-called 300*-series): 54% Austenitic stainless steels Cr - Mn (also called 200*-series): 21% Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels (also called 400*-series): 23%
- select the rignt type of stainless steel: super austenitics such as grade 904L or super duplex (Ferritic stainless steels and duplex stainless steels are very resistant to SCC)
Currently stainless steel fibers are manufactured primarily in Europe.The most common uses for stainless steel fibers is in the field of the electrical and textiles industry such as anti-radiation cloth, thermal resistant fabric, and anti-static brushes. Many people also use stainless steel fibers in weaving. Increasingly common today are stainless steel fibers in clothing, including radiation protection for pregnant women. Stainless steel yarns are woven, braided, and knit into many industrial fabrics. For additional variety, stainless steel yarns are twisted with other fibers such as wool, nylon, cotton, and synthetic blends to produce yarns which add novelty effects to the end cloth. Stainless steel and other metal fibers are used in communication lines such as telephone lines and cable television lines. Stainless steel fibers are also used in carpets. They are dispersed throughout the carpet with other fibers so they are not detected. The presence of the fibers helps to conduct electricity so that the static shock is reduced. These types of carpets are often used in computer-use areas where risks of electrostatic discharge are much greater. Other uses include tire cord, missile nose cones, work clothing such as protective suits, space suits, and cut resistant gloves for butchers and other people working near bladed or dangerous machinery.
Alloy 20 is an austenitic stainless steel developed for applications involving sulfuric acid. Its corrosion resistance also finds other uses in the chemical, petrochemical, power generation, and plastics industries. Alloy 20 resists pitting and chloride ion corrosion, better than 304 stainless steel and on par with 316L stainless steel. Its copper content protects it from sulfuric acid. Alloy 20 is often chosen to solve stress corrosion cracking problems, which may occur with 316L stainless. Alloy of the same name with the designation "Cb-3" indicates columbium stabilized.
Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing ferritic stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.[34]
Surgical stainless steel is a grade of stainless steel that is used in biomedical applications. The most common "surgical steels" are austenitic 316 stainless and martensitic 440 and 420 stainless steels. There is no formal definition on what constitutes a "surgical stainless steel", so product manufacturers and distributors apply the term to refer to any grade of corrosion resistant steel.
Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due to a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys.
Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping. One of the more popular stainless steel grades used in 3D printing is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more refined microstructure; this in turn results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not used as much as materials like Ti6Al4V in the 3D printing industry; this is because manufacturing stainless steel products via traditional methods is currently much more economically competitive.