Instruct: Given a question, retrieve relevant documents that can help answer the question.
Query: Who discovered the molecule?
The modern concept of molecules can be traced back towards pre-scientific and Greek philosophers such as Leucippus and Democritus who argued that all the universe is composed of atoms and voids. Circa 450 BC Empedocles imagined fundamental elements (fire (), earth (), air (), and water ()) and "forces" of attraction and repulsion allowing the elements to interact. Prior to this, Heraclitus had claimed that fire or change was fundamental to our existence, created through the combination of opposite properties.[1] In the Timaeus, Plato, following Pythagoras, considered mathematical entities such as number, point, line and triangle as the fundamental building blocks or elements of this ephemeral world, and considered the four elements of fire, air, water and earth as states of substances through which the true mathematical principles or elements would pass.[2] A fifth element, the incorruptible quintessence aether, was considered to be the fundamental building block of the heavenly bodies. The viewpoint of Leucippus and Empedocles, along with the aether, was accepted by Aristotle and passed to medieval and renaissance Europe. A modern conceptualization of molecules began to develop in the 19th century along with experimental evidence for pure chemical elements and how individual atoms of different chemical substances such as hydrogen and oxygen can combine to form chemically stable molecules such as water molecules.
While radio astronomy was developed in the 1930s, it was not until 1937 that any substantial evidence arose for the conclusive identification of an interstellar "molecule" - up until this point, the only chemical species known to exist in interstellar space were atomic. These findings were confirmed in 1940, when McKellar et al. identified and attributed spectroscopic lines in an as-of-then unidentified radio observation to CH and CN molecules in interstellar space. In the thirty years afterwards, a small selection of other molecules were discovered in interstellar space: the most important being OH, discovered in 1963 and significant as a source of interstellar oxygen, and HCO (Formaldehyde), discovered in 1969 and significant for being the first observed organic, polyatomic molecule in interstellar space
Borospherene (B) is a cluster molecule containing 40 boron atoms. It is similar to buckminsterfullerene, the "spherical" carbon structure, but with a different symmetry. The discovery of borospherene was announced in July 2014, and is described in the journal "Nature Chemistry". Borospherene is the latest in a series of cluster molecules, including buckminsterfullerene (C), stannaspherene, and plumbaspherene. The newly discovered molecule includes unusual heptagonal faces.
In 1965, twelve years after the first maser was built in a laboratory, a hydroxyl (OH) maser was discovered in the plane of the Milky Way. Masers of other molecules were discovered in the Milky Way in the following years, including water (HO), silicon monoxide (SiO), and methanol (CHOH). The typical isotropic luminosity for these galactic masers is . The first evidence for extragalactic masing was detection of the hydroxyl molecule in NGC 253 in 1973, and was roughly ten times more luminous than galactic masers.
In the later part of his career, Burstein and collaborators discovered that fullerene molecules C (“buckyballs”) in close proximity to a smooth metal surface exhibit normally forbidden modes of luminescence –– a singlet exciton fluorescence and a triplet exciton phosphorescence. The metal-induced fluorescence was attributed to the lowering of the symmetry of the molecules. The metal-induced phosphorescence was attributed to the mixing of the singlet and triplet exciton states of the molecules by the spin-orbit interaction of the molecules with the metal atoms, and to the mixing of the singlet and triplet states by the virtual hopping of electrons between the excited molecules and the metal, both new mechanisms for turning on the phosphorescence of molecules.Burstein received a number of honors, including: 
For any gas, at a given temperature and pressure, the number of molecules present in a particular volume is constant – see ideal gas law. So when water molecules (vapor) are introduced into that volume of dry air, the number of air molecules in the volume must decrease by the same number, if the temperature and pressure remain constant. (The addition of water molecules, or any other molecules, to a gas, without removal of an equal number of other molecules, will necessarily require a change in temperature, pressure, or total volume; that is, a change in "at least" one of these three parameters. If temperature and pressure remain constant, the volume increases, and the dry air molecules that were displaced will initially move out into the additional volume, after which the mixture will eventually become uniform through diffusion.) Hence the mass per unit volume of the gas—its density—decreases. Isaac Newton discovered this phenomenon and wrote about it in his book "Opticks".
Shatz is one of the pioneers who determined some of the basic principles of early brain development. She found that the spontaneous activity of neurons "in utero" is critical for the formation of precise and orderly neural connections in the central nervous system. She discovered that waves of spontaneous activity in the retina can alter gene expression and the strength of synaptic connections. In 2000, Shatz and colleagues identified Class I MHC molecules as important in neuronal plasticity, a surprising new role for molecules previously thought to have only immune system function.
In mass spectrometry discrete peaks appeared corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms. In 1985 Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex, James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley from Rice University, discovered C, and shortly thereafter came to discover the fullerenes. 
Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of molecules. C and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside the laboratory (for example, in normal candle-soot). By 1990 it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder using the techniques of Donald Huffman, Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell D. Lamb, and Konstantinos Fostiropoulos. Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices. So-called endohedral fullerenes have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993. Carbon nanotubes were first discovered and synthesized in 1991.
With the search for similar microtubulin binding molecules, scientists explored many natural products in the ocean, specifically sponges. It took around 15 years until another molecule with a similar mechanism was found. In more recent years, the molecules that have been discovered have differing structures from Taxol, however the mechanisms still remain to be similar. One in particular is called, discodermolide. Dr. Horwitz and her team were interested in not only the binding site for the molecule on the microtubule, but also the possible allosteric effects that the molecule may have on other parts of the microtubule. In order to test for these effects, the team used a hydrogen-deuterium exchange process. The results showed that there was in fact several changes that occurred along the microtubule separate from the binding site when the molecule was bound. They found that normal microbtubule-associated proteins, or MAPs, were not able to bind to the microtubules in the normal way. When discodermolide and Taxol® were both tested together, the results displayed that they do bind in the same location on the microtubules, however they bind in unique ways from each other. This opened a new door for the team as they decided to attempt making hybrid molecules that would put together the active parts of both of these molecules into one super molecule.
An important intermediate in chemical industry, nitric oxide forms in combustion systems and can be generated by lightning in thunderstorms. In mammals, including humans, nitric oxide is a signaling molecule in many physiological and pathological processes. It was proclaimed the "Molecule of the Year" in 1992. The 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discovering nitric oxide's role as a cardiovascular signalling molecule.
Impossible Foods' scientists discovered that a molecule called heme is a key factor in how meat behaves. Heme is the molecule that gives blood its red color and helps carry oxygen in living organisms. Heme is abundant in animal muscle tissue and is also found naturally in all living organisms. Plants, particularly nitrogen-fixing plants and legumes, also contain heme. The plant-based heme molecule is identical to the heme molecule found in meat.
Helium trimer molecules have been produced by expanding cold helium gas from a nozzle into a vacuum chamber. Such a set up also produces the helium dimer and other helium atom clusters. The existence of the molecule was proven by matter wave diffraction on a diffraction grating. The kind of grating used needs to have empty space between the bars, so that molecules can pass through, glass would stop helium. Properties of the molecules can be discovered by Coulomb explosion imaging in which a laser ionizes all three atoms simultaneously, and then three ions fly apart and are then detected.
Neutral argon hydride, also known as argon monohydride (ArH), was the first discovered noble gas hydride. J. W. C. Johns discovered an emission line of ArH at 767 nm and announced the find in 1970. The molecule was synthesized using X-ray irradiation of mixtures of argon with hydrogen-rich molecules such as H, HO, CH and CHOH. The X-ray excited argon atoms are in the 4p state.
Dekker started his research on single carbon nanotubes in 1993 when he set up a new line of research to study electrical transport through single organic molecules between nanoelectrodes. In 1996 a breakthrough was realized with carbon nanotubes. This was achieved in a collaboration with the group of Nobel laureate Richard Smalley. STM and nanolithography techniques were used to demonstrate that these nanotubes are quantum wires at the single-molecule level, with outstanding physical properties. Many new phenomena were discovered, and he and his research group established a leading position in this field of research. Dekker and his research group discovered new physics of nanotubes as well as explored the feasibility of molecular electronics. In 1998, they were the first to build a transistor based on a single nanotube molecule.
Peter Cresswell FRS is a British immunologist, and Eugene Higgins Professor of Immunobiology and Professor of Cell Biology and of Dermatology, at Yale School of Medicine. His lab primary focuses on the molecular mechanisms of antigen processing particularly the functions of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and CD1 molecules. He is most notable for discovering and identifying the MHC class II molecules and viperin.
The cloud is composed of various kinds of complex molecules, of particular interest: alcohol. The cloud contains ethanol, vinyl alcohol, and methanol. This is due to the conglomeration of atoms resulting in new molecules. The composition was discovered via spectrograph in an attempt to discover amino acids. An ester, ethyl formate, was also discovered, which is a major precursor to amino acids.
Although the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g., antibodies and T cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs for short) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.
It is analogous to cyclodecapentaene ([10]annulene), but with two hydrogen atoms replaced by a transannular methylene bridge (--). Consequently, it obeys Hückel's rule ("n" = 2) and despite the distortion from planarity introduced by the methylene bridge, the compound is aromatic. In fact, when prepared by Vogel in the 1960s it was the first stable aromatic cyclodecapentaene to be discovered. [Note: It was later discovered that in actuality, this molecule was first prepared by Heinz D. Roth, who showed the molecule to Vogel, the man who consequently took credit for the work.] Its aromaticity is confirmed by three main pieces of evidence. Firstly, the similarity in carbon-carbon bond lengths as measured by x-ray crystallography is inconsistent with alternating single and double bonds. The actual structure is better considered as a pair of resonance hybrids (like the Kekulé structures of benzene) rather than as having alternating single and double bonds.
A mesonic molecule is a set of two or more mesons bound together by the strong force. Unlike baryonic molecules, which form the nuclei of all elements in nature save hydrogen-1, a mesonic molecule has yet to be definitively observed. The X(3872) discovered in 2003 and the Z(4430) discovered in 2007 by the Belle experiment are the best candidates for such an observation.
Later, she was briefly reunited with a de-powered Molecule Man (who had mysteriously returned to Earth) and battled Klaw. It was at that time that she gained the ability to assume volcanic rock and volcanic ash forms. She subsequently discovered that, just before his supposed "death," the Molecule Man had secretly "willed" her a portion of his reality-warping power and it was this power that gave her the ability to manifest these other forms at critical times, just when she needed them. Once he regained his power from her, she found herself no longer able to tolerate the darker side of his personality and terminated their relationship as Molecule Man vows to one day prove his full love to her.
Evolution of the adaptive immune system occurred in an ancestor of the jawed vertebrates. Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g., immunoglobulins and T-cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates. However, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.
In the almost 40 years since it was first built, the 12m Radio Telescope has been at the forefront of millimeter molecular astronomy: studying molecules in space through the use of molecular spectroscopy at millimeter wavelengths. Many of the molecules that have been discovered in the interstellar medium were discovered by the 12m.
RNA interference (RNAi) is a natural process used by cells to regulate gene expression. It was discovered in 1998 by Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, who won the Nobel Prize for their discovery in 2006. The process to silence genes first begins with the entrance of a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecule into the cell, which triggers the RNAi pathway. The double-stranded molecule is then cut into small double-stranded fragments by an enzyme called Dicer. These small fragments, which include small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA), are approximately 21–23 nucleotides in length. The fragments integrate into a multi-subunit protein called the RNA-induced silencing complex, which contains Argonaute proteins that are essential components of the RNAi pathway. One strand of the molecule, called the "guide" strand, binds to RISC, while the other strand, known as the "passenger" strand is degraded. The guide or antisense strand of the fragment that remains bound to RISC directs the sequence-specific silencing of the target mRNA molecule. The genes can be silenced by siRNA molecules that cause the endonucleatic cleavage of the target mRNA molecules or by miRNA molecules that suppress translation of the mRNA molecule. With the cleavage or translational repression of the mRNA molecules, the genes that form them are essentially inactive. RNAi is thought to have evolved as a cellular defense mechanism against invaders, such as RNA viruses, or to combat the proliferation of transposons within a cell's DNA. Both RNA viruses and transposons can exist as double-stranded RNA and lead to the activation of RNAi. Currently, siRNAs are being widely used to suppress specific gene expression and to assess the function of genes. Companies utilizing this approach include Alnylam, Sanofi, Arrowhead, Discerna, and Persomics, among others.
Coated pits and vesicles were first seen in thin sections of tissue in the electron microscope by Matt Lions and Parker George. The importance of them for the clearance of LDL from blood was discovered by Richard G. Anderson, Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein in 1977. Coated vesicles were first purified by Barbara Pearse, who discovered the clathrin coat molecule in 1976.
During the next decade, molecular biology the world over flourished, the outline bones of the 1950s now having flesh put on them. The detailed 3-D atomic structures of a series of proteins, and how they function, were deduced. These included myoglobin, hemoglobin and chymotrypsin, the last by David Blow. The genetic code, from evidence around the world, was assembled by Crick. Punctuation signals in the messenger RNA — where to start translating the RNA into a protein sequence, and where to stop — were discovered by postdoctoral fellow Joan A. Steitz. Crick suggested how the tRNA molecules — his original adaptors — read the messenger in his wobble hypothesis. Sanger devised new methods for sequencing RNA molecules and then later for DNA molecules (for which he received a second Nobel prize in chemistry in 1980). Much later, this line was extended to include determining the sequence of whole genomes, in which John Sulston played a key role. How tRNA precursor molecules are processed to give a functional tRNA was elucidated by John Smith and Sid Altman, and this later led to the discovery of ribozymes. The atomic structure of the first tRNA molecule was solved and zinc fingers discovered by Klug (who received the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1982). The structure of the ATP synthase was solved by John E. Walker and Andrew Leslie, for which Walker shared the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1997. The structure of the ribosome was solved by Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, for which he shared the Nobel prize for chemistry in 2009.