Instruct: Given a question, retrieve relevant passages that can help answer the question.
Query: When was the Iliad first written down?
The Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC.[2] In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. According to Michael N. Nagler, the Iliad is a more complicated epic poem than the Odyssey.[3]
In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:
The first reference in literature to elms occurs in the "Iliad". When Eetion, father of Andromache, is killed by Achilles during the Trojan War, the Mountain Nymphs plant elms on his tomb ("περὶ δὲ πτελέoι εφύτεψαν νύμφαι ὀρεστιάδες, κoῦραι Διὸς αἰγιόχoιo").
Also in the Iliad, when the River Scamander, indignant at the sight of so many corpses in his water, overflows and threatens to drown Achilles, the latter grasps a branch of a great elm in an attempt to save himself ("ὁ δὲ πτελέην ἕλε χερσὶν εὐφυέα μεγάλην".
Daretis Phrygii Ilias De bello Troiano ("The Iliad of Dares the Phrygian: On the Trojan War") is an epic poem in Latin, written around 1183 by the English poet Joseph of Exeter. It tells the story of the ten year Trojan War as it was known in medieval western Europe. The ancient Greek epic on the subject, the "Iliad", was inaccessible; instead, the sources available included the fictional "diaries" of Dictys of Crete and Dares of Phrygia. When Joseph's text was printed for the first time in 1541, it was actually erroneously attributed to Dares of Phrygia, announced as the long-lost verse version of his story ("quibus multis seculis caruimus" – which we lacked for many centuries) supposedly put into Latin hexameters by Nepos.
The iLiad was an electronic handheld device, or e-Reader, which could be used for document reading and editing. Like the Barnes and Noble nook, Sony Reader or Amazon Kindle, the iLiad made use of an electronic paper display. In 2010, sales of the iLiad ended when its parent company, iRex Technologies, filed for bankruptcy. 
Friedrich August Wolf's Prolegomena ad Homerum, published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the Iliad and the Odyssey was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs,[25][26][20] which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey the sixth century BC by literate authors.[25][26][20] After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.[25][26][20] Wolf and the "Analyst" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems which were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.[25][26][20][27] Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the "lay theory," which held that the Iliad and the Odyssey were put together from a large number of short, independent songs,[20] and proponents of the "nucleus theory", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey, which later poets expanded and revised.[20] A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed "Unitarians", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.[25][26][20] By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not "Homer" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed "the Homeric Question".[20]
In the five book epic "Aethiopis", which was part of the Epic Cycle (or Cycle of Troy) on the Trojan War, the coming to Troy of Penthesilea and Memnon was described in detail. The "Aethiopis" was published in the 8th century BC and is attributed to Arctinus of Miletus. The main character of the epic is Achilles, who fights Penthesilea and Memnon before he is himself killed. Although "Aethiopis" has been lost, the Epic Cycle has been adapted and recycled in different periods of the classical age. The tradition of retelling the epic fall of Troy is indebted to Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey", which were grounded in oral storytelling and were only written down when the Greek alphabet was adopted in ancient Greece.
The novel centers on three character groups: that of Hockenberry (a resurrected twentieth-century Homeric scholar whose duty is to compare the events of the "Iliad" to the reenacted events of the Trojan War), Greek and Trojan warriors, and Greek gods from the "Iliad"; Daeman, Harman, Ada, and other humans of an Earth thousands of years after the twentieth century; and the "moravec" robots (named for scientist and futurist Hans Moravec) Mahnmut the Europan and Orphu of Io, also thousands of years in the future, but originating in the Jovian system. The novel is written in first-person, present-tense when centered on Hockenberry's character, but features third-person, past-tense narrative in all other instances. Much like Simmons' "Hyperion", where the actual events serve as a frame, the three groups of characters' stories are told over the course of the novel and begin to converge as the climax nears.
"The New York Review of Books" says the essay is one of Weil's most celebrated works. "The Atlantic Monthly" has written that, along with Rachel Bespaloff's "On the Iliad", Weil's essay "remains the twentieth century's most beloved, tortured, and profound responses to the world's greatest and most disturbing poem."
Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.[41] The first edition of the "Iliad", editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488/89.[42]
Scholia are ancient commentaries, initially written in the margins of manuscripts, not necessarily at the bottom, as are their modern equivalents, the notes. The term marginalia includes them. Some are interlinear, written in very small characters. Over time the scholia were copied along with the work. When the copyist ran out of free text space, he listed them on separate pages or in separate works. Today's equivalents are the chapter notes or the notes section at the end of the book. Notes are merely a continuation of the practice of creating or copying scholia in printed works, although the incunabula, the first printed works, duplicated some scholia. The works of Homer have been heavily annotated from their written beginnings. The total number of notes on manuscripts and printed editions of the Iliad and Odyssey are for practical purposes innumerable.
While the Homeric poems (the Iliad in particular) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart."[55] Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.
The length of each line in the "Iliad" and "Odyssey", which may have been among the first long, Greek texts written down, became the standard unit for ancient stichometry. This standard line ("Normalzeile", in German) was thus as long as an epic hexameter and contained about 15 syllables or 35 Greek letters.
The document was written by an unknown copyist. It contains the text of the fifth book of the "Iliad." It is written on the verso side of the "Petition of Dionysia". Before it was utilised for the "Iliad" roll, it had to be patched and strengthened. The original roll was of great length.
On November 19, 2011, the WCHS theater troupe (Maroon Masque), competed in the VHSL Region II Theater Festival at Tuscarora High School and placed first with the play "‘The Greek Mythology Olympiaganza! (Iliad! Iliad! Iliad!)’" By Don Zolidis.
Written in Homeric fashion, the poem focuses mainly on a fantastical interpretation of the Portuguese voyages of discovery during the 15th and 16th centuries. "Os Lusíadas" is often regarded as Portugal's national epic, much as Virgil's "Aeneid" was for the Ancient Romans, or Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" for the Ancient Greeks. It was written when Camões was an exile in Macau and was first printed in 1572, three years after the author returned from the Indies.
On 16 January 2018 the name of the Italian administrator of Iliad Italia, Benedetto Levi, was officially announced, together with the presentation of the new logo and the institutional website. As part of the implementation of the infrastructures required to cover the Italian territory with its own network, on 16 February 2018, an agreement was reached with the Spanish group Cellnex, which provides Iliad Italia with over 7700 cellular antennas in Italy. Finally, on 29 May 2018, the official launch of the operator takes place, in conjunction with the presentation of the commercial offer and the start of the sale of SIM cards with new numbers or to carry out the number portability from other phone operators. On 18 July 2018, just under two months after its launch, Iliad Italia officially announced that it had reached one million customers between requests for portability and new subscriptions. On 4 September 2018, the Iliad group releases the results of the first half of 2018, reporting the achievement – by early August – of one and a half million customers in Italy; actually, on 6 September 2018, Iliad Italia issues a press release confirming the achievement of two million customers.
According to Plato, lexis is the manner of speaking. Plato said that lexis can be divided into mimesis (imitation properly speaking) and diegesis (simple narrative). Gerard Genette states: "Plato's theoretical division, opposing the two pure and heterogeneous modes of narrative and imitation, within poetic diction, elicits and establishes a practical classification of genres, which includes the two distinct modes...and a mixed mode, for example the Iliad".
In the "Iliad", a Greek epic written by Homer, the mixed mode is very prevalent. According to Gerald Prince, diegesis in the "Iliad" is the fictional storytelling associated with the fictional world and the enacting/re-telling of the story. Mimesis in the" Iliad" is the imitation of everyday, yet fantastical life in the ancient Greek world. Diegesis and mimesis combined represent the fullest extent of lexis; both forms of speech, narrating and re-enacting.
In conclusion, lexis is the larger overview of literature. Within lexis the two areas of differentiation of mimesis (imitation) are diegesis (narrative) and the "direct representation of the actors speaking to the public."
The Ambrosian Iliad or Ilias Picta (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Cod. F. 205 Inf.) is a 5th-century illuminated manuscript on vellum, and depicts the entirety of Homer's "Iliad", including battle scenes and noble scenes. The Ambrosian Iliad is considered unique due to being the only set of ancient illustrations that depict scenes from the Iliad, and it is seen as an example of the transition from Greek oral tradition to the written word. The Ambrosian Iliad consists of 52 miniatures that are estimated to have been cut from their original manuscript before the 13th Century, each labeled numerically. Comparisons of texts per page to other late antique manuscripts (Vatican Vergil, Vienna Genesis) has led some to speculate these miniatures were originally part of a large manuscript. This manuscript is unlike other illuminated manuscripts in its lack of gilding. Instead, the author(s) chose yellow ochre to represent gold within the individual images, i.e. the gold cuirasses of noble figures, and the halo of Zeus ("folios" XXXIV).
Likewise, in the Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets, some Homeric names appear, including Achilles (Linear B: , "a-ki-re-u"), a name which was also common in the classical period, noted on tablets from both Knossos and Pylos. The Achilles of the Linear B tablet is a shepherd, not a king or warrior, but the very fact that the name is an authentic Bronze Age name is significant. These names in the Homeric poems presumably remember, if not necessarily specific people, at least an older time when people's names were not the same as they were when the Homeric epics were written down. Some story elements from the tablets appear in the "Iliad".
Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.[63]
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear. "Aegis-bearing Zeus", as he is in the "Iliad", sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the "Iliad" when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton's "Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes", the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was "awful to behold". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling's beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.[57]
Gusle are also indirectly important to the whole of Western civilization. The Homeric Iliad and the Odyssey are the generally considered foundational works of literature of Western civilization along with the Torah and the Christian Bible. As the verses pertain to a war and events long before the abjad script was known to the Greeks, it was proposed that Homeric hymns were sung, not written, and were passed down through generations of singing epic bards, who were, like Homer, often blind. This was finally proven as probable in the 19th century when the German classicist Heinrich Schliemann discovered the gusle tradition not far from Greece after observing a Serbian bard reciting a lengthy poem in a similar style.
Although the night raid of Nisus and Euryalus has a discrete narrative unity, it is closely related to major themes of the epic, such as the transition from boyhood to manhood, also present in the characters of Ascanius, Pallas, and Lausus, and the waste of young lives in war. Nisus and Euryalus's killing spree through the camp of the Rutuli is one of Virgil's most brutal descriptions of combat (especially when Nisus beheads the chief Remus with his warriors Lamyrus, Lamus and Serranus). The poetry of Euryalus's death—"as when a richly hued flower is cut down by the plough and withers as it dies, or when the rains beat down the poppy's head, weighed down on slack neck" — is a replay of the death of Gorgytion in the Iliad.