Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that can help answer the question.
Query: Who theorized the social self?
Social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.[1] As originally formulated by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and the 1980s,[2] social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup behaviour.[3][4][5]
May '68 and its aftermaths saw the occupation of the LIP factory in Besançon, one of the major social conflict of the 1970s, during which the CFDT and the Unified Socialist Party, of which Pierre Mendès-France was a member, theorized workers' self-management.
Apart of the PSU, the autonomist movement, inspired by Italian "operaismo", made its first appearance on the political scene.
In a more general way, Claude Dubar reflects on the socialization process with particular instances of professional identity. However, in his book "La Socialisation, construction Des identités sociales et professionnelles" (The Socialisation, building social and professional identities), he attacks the genesis of an identity matrix and its construction in early childhood. To do so, he theorizes a distinction between "self identity" and "identity to others."
Researchers Arthur and Elaine Aron (1986) theorized that humans have a basic drive to expand their self-concepts. Further, their experience with Eastern concepts of love caused them to believe that positive emotions, cognitions, and relationships in romantic behaviors all drive the expansion of a person’s self-concept. A study following college students for 10 weeks showed that those students who fell in love over the course of the investigation reported higher feelings of self-esteem and self efficacy than those who did not (Aron, Paris, and Aron, 1995).
Postmodern symbolic interactionists understand the notions of self and identity to be increasingly fragmented and illusory, and consider attempts at theorizing to be meta-narratives with no more authority than other conversations. The approach is presented in detail by "The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research".
Self-categorization theory provides an account of social influence. This account is sometimes referred to as the theory of "referent informational influence". According to self-categorization theory, as social identities become salient, and depersonalization and self-stereotyping occurs, people adopt the norms, beliefs, and behaviors of fellow ingroup members. They also distance themselves from the norms, beliefs, and behaviors of comparison outgroup members. When someone observes a difference between themselves and a fellow ingroup member that person will experience subjective uncertainty. That uncertainty can be resolved by either a) recategorizing people or the situation to reflect those perceived differences, or b) engaging in a social influence process whereby one person makes changes to become more similar to the other. Which person adopts the views or behaviors of the other (i.e. who influences who) is predicted to be that person who is most prototypical of the ingroup. In other words, the person who exemplifies the norms, values, and behaviors of the ingroup the most. The self-categorization theory account of social influence has received a large amount of empirical support.
Rebecca wing-yi Cheng and Shui-fong Lam measured the effects of self-construal in the classroom. They studied the "role of self-construal as a moderator of the social comparison effects in authentic classrooms." With the use of 96 Chinese seventh grade students they compared independent and interdependent views of self-construal to upward social comparison and downward social comparison. They noted that "self comparison is commonly used when people are uncertain of their self-evaluation. It allows an individual to gain information about where they stand." The students participated in an Abstract Reasoning Test and reading comprehension task. They manipulated construal by telling the students they were either being compared to others within their school (independent self-construal) or between their school and another school (interdependent self-construal). The results showed that the school children who performed very well experienced negative self-evaluation while those who did not experienced negative self-evaluation. However, those in the interdependent self construal condition always reported positive self-evaluation showcasing a term known as basking-in-reflected-glory. The hope of this study is to encourage classrooms to ensure that interdependent self-construal is being emphasized.
John Charles Turner (September 7, 1947 – July 24, 2011) was a British social psychologist who, along with colleagues, developed the self-categorization theory. Amongst other things the theory states that the self is not a foundational aspect of cognition, but rather that the self is an outcome of cognitive processes and an interaction between the person and the social context. Self-categorization theory was developed as a companion theory to the social identity theory, and the two theories taken together are known as the social identity approach.
Sadistic personality disorder -
Sadomasochism -
Safety in numbers -
Sander illusion -
Sapience -
Scale (social sciences) -
Schadenfreude -
Schedules of reinforcement -
Schema (psychology) -
Schizoaffective disorder -
Schizoid personality disorder -
Schizophrenia -
Schizophrenics Anonymous -
Schizophreniform disorder -
Schizotypal personality disorder -
Scholastic Aptitude Test -
School phobia -
School refusal -
Science and Consciousness Review -
Scientific control -
Seasonal affective disorder -
Secondary gain -
Security blanket -
Selective abstraction -
Selective distortion -
Self-actualization -
Self-awareness -
Self-concept -
Self-consciousness -
Self-criticism -
Self-deception -
Self-defeating personality disorder -
Self-determination theory -
Self-disclosure -
Self-efficacy -
Self-esteem -
Self-esteem functions -
Self-help -
Self-injury -
Self-knowledge -
Self-loathing -
Self-monitoring -
Self-parenting -
Self-perception theory -
Self-pity -
Self-punishment -
Self-realization -
Self-regulated learning -
Self (Jung) -
Self (psychology) -
Self actualization -
Self control -
Self efficacy -
Self-esteem -
Self handicapping -
Self propaganda -
Self psychology -
Self serving bias -
Selfishness -
Semantic dementia -
Semantic dyslexia -
Semantic memory -
Semantics -
Senile dementia -
Senile plaques -
Sensation (psychology) -
Sense of time -
Sensitivity (human) -
Sensory adaptation -
Sensory gating -
Sensory memory -
Sensory neuroscience -
Sensory preconditioning -
Sensory threshold -
Sentience -
Separation anxiety disorder -
Serial position effect -
Serial sevens -
Sex-reassignment surgery -
Sexual arousal disorders -
Sexual arousal -
Sexual aversion disorder -
Sexual desire -
Sexual deviation -
Sexual disorders -
Sexual dysfunction -
Sexual fetishism -
Sexual masochism -
Sexual orientation -
Sexual response cycle -
Sexual sadism -
human sexuality -
Shadow (psychology) -
Shame -
Shaping (psychology) -
Shell shock -
Shock value -
Short term memory -
Shyness -
Sibling -
Siege mentality -
Sigmund Freud Archives -
Silva Method -
Similarity (psychology) -
Simon effect -
Simplicity theory -
Simulated consciousness -
Simulated pregnancy -
Simulation heuristic -
Sitophobia -
Situational awareness -
Six Thinking Hats -
Size-weight illusion -
Skinner box -
Sleep-learning -
Sluggish cognitive tempo -
Sluggishly progressing schizophrenia -
Smart mob -
Social anxiety -
Social anxiety disorder -
Social cognition -
Social desirability -
Social disruption -
Social distance -
Social distance scale -
Social facilitation -
Social group -
Social influence -
Social inhibition -
Social interaction -
Social learning theory -
Social loafing -
Social neuroscience -
Social norm -
Social proof -
Social psychology (psychology) -
Social psychology (sociology) -
Social rejection -
Social rhythm therapy -
Social role -
Social skills -
Social statistics -
Social status -
Social stigma -
Social support -
Socialization -
Society of Mind theory -
Socioeconomic status -
Sociometry -
Socionics -
Sociosexual orientation -
Sodomy -
Solitary confinement -
Soma -
Somatization disorder -
Somatoform disorder -
Somatotherapy -
Somatotype and constitutional psychology -
Spatial empathy -
Spatial memory -
Spatial-temporal reasoning -
Speaker recognition -
Specific phobia -
Specific social phobia -
Speech act -
Speech perception -
Speed reading -
Spiral dynamics -
splitting (psychology) -
Spontaneous recovery -
Sport psychology -
Stage fright -
Stage theory -
Stages of faith development -
Stanford-Binet -
State-dependent learning -
State-dependent memory -
Steppingstone theory -
Stereotypes -
Stereotypic movement disorder -
Stigmatic/eligibilic paraphilia -
Stimming -
Stimulus generalization -
Stir crazy (condition) -
Stockholm syndrome -
Storage (memory) -
Strategic planning -
Stream of consciousness (psychology) -
Stress (medicine) -
Stress management -
Stressor -
Structural communication -
Structural ritualization theory -
Structuralism -
Structure-agency debate -
Structured interview -
Study Skills -
Subjective reality -
Sublimation (psychology) -
Subliminal advertising -
Subliminal perception -
Submission -
Substance-related disorder -
Substance abuse -
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration -
Substance dependence -
Substance intoxication -
Substance-related disorder -
Subvocalization -
Suffering -
Suicidal ideation -
Suicide -
Suicide treatment -
Suicide watch -
Suicidology -
Superego -
Superficial charm -
Superiority complex -
Superman complex -
Superordinate goals -
Surprise (emotion) -
Swept-plane display -
Sycophancy -
Syllogism -
Sylvia Plath effect -
Symbolic violence -
Sympathy -
Sympathetic nervous system -
Synesthesia -
Synectics -
Systematic desensitization -
Systems psychology -
Systems intelligence -
Systems thinking
Uses and gratifications theory is often used to attempt to explain such things as motivation on the Internet. Studies have found that, if applied to the use of the Internet by children and their likelihood to disclose personal information, one can find significant correlations with various types of motivation. Children who use the Internet primarily as a source of information are less likely to give out personal information. Some theorize that these children are simply made to be more aware of the dangers of Internet disclosures and are more cautious because of this. But, children who mention social contact on the Internet as their first-order use are more often the ones who submit to the attempts of online marketers and predators who seek their personal contact information and behavioral preferences. These children have goals of social acceptance in mind, and it seems to them that acceptance can be easily gained from sharing and communicating with friends and strangers alike. Socializing motives reduce privacy concerns, and children will disclose nearly anything online in order to be seen and responded to socially. It was also discovered that a simple incentive is usually enough to elicit personal information from a child.
Springing from interest in bonding theory, Hirschi—in co-operation with Gottfredson—has developed the "General Theory of Crime" or "self-control theory" from 1990 onwards. Based on the empirical observation of the strong, consistent connection between criminal behavior and age, Hirschi and Gottfredson theorized the single most important factor behind crime is individual lack of self-control. Individual self-control improves with age as a result of many factors: changing biology through hormonal development, socialization and increasing opportunity costs of losing control. In addition, criminal acts are often markedly non-controlled; they are both opportunistic and short-sighted. It is essentially the extent to which different people are vulnerable to the temptations of the moment.
Graves theorized that in response to the interaction of external conditions with internal neuronal systems, humans develop new bio-psycho-social coping systems to solve existential problems and cope with their worlds. These coping systems are dependent on evolving human culture and individual development, and they are manifested at the individual, societal, and species levels. He believed that tangible, emergent, self-assembling dynamic neuronal systems evolved in the human brain in response to evolving existential and social problems. He theorized "man's nature is not a set thing, that it is ever emergent, that it is an open system, not a closed system." This open-endedness set his approach apart from many of his contemporaries who sought a final state, a nirvana, or perfectibility in human nature. His inclusion of the bio-, psycho-, social, and systems theory as vital co-elements also described an inclusive point of view that continues developing today.
There is no broad consensus as to the cause of ethnocentrism. Various areas of social and biological science have developed theories as to how ethnocentrism works. The social identity approach to psychology suggests that ethnocentricity is caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that links one's self-esteem to a positive view of that culture. It's theorized that in order to maintain that positive view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.
According to Thorton and Arrowood, self-evaluation is one of the functions of social comparison. This is one process that underlies how an individual engages in social comparison. Each individual's specific goals will influence how they engage in social comparison. For self-evaluation, people tend to choose a comparison target that is similar to themselves. Specifically, they are most interested in choosing a target who shares some distinctive characteristic with themselves. Research suggests that most people believe that choosing a similar target helps ensure the accuracy of the self-evaluation. However, individuals do not always act as unbiased self-evaluators, and accurate self-evaluations may not be the primary goal of social comparison.
The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura, along with his students and colleagues conducted a series of studies, known as the Bobo doll experiment, in 1961 and 1963 to find out why and when children display aggressive behaviors. These studies demonstrated the value of modeling for acquiring novel behaviors. These studies helped Bandura publish his seminal article and book in 1977 that expanded on the idea of how behavior is acquired, and thus built from Miller and Dollard's research. In Bandura's 1977 article, he claimed that Social Learning Theory shows a direct correlation between a person's perceived self-efficacy and behavioral change. Self-efficacy comes from four sources: "performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states".
People with high levels of CSE are prone to making social comparisons based on appearance. As a result, these individuals more than often feel diminished. "Appearance related social comparisons" are comparisons of one's perceived appearance to the appearance of other people. Those who make social comparisons base their feelings of self-worth on meeting social standards and expectations. Appearance related social comparisons can affect one's self-esteem in both positive and negative ways. On the positive side, appearance related social comparisons can help develop and maintain one's level of self-worth. On the negative side, appearance related social comparisons can cause the decline of an individual's self-worth and value. Women who measure their self-worth based on cultural standards may be affected more by social comparisons, particularly when they have a low self-perception of attractiveness.
Mead theorized that human beings begin their understanding of the social world through "play" and "game". "Play" comes first in the child's development. The child takes different roles he/she observes in "adult" society, and plays them out to gain an understanding of the different social roles. For instance, he first plays the role of policeman and then the role of thief while playing "Cops and Robbers," and plays the role of doctor and patient when playing "Doctor." As a result of such play, the child learns to become both subject and object and begins to become able to build a self. However, it is a limited self because the child can only take the role of distinct and separate others, they still lack a more general and organized sense of themselves.
The social roles we ascribe to ourselves are the basis of our social identities and collectively, these identities form our global self—our overall sense of who we are. This identity-to-global self-path operationalizes social identity theory's guiding premise that one's overall sense of self, derives from the particular identities that one enacts and ascribes to one's self.
Individuals who have a negative mood improve their mood by making upward social comparisons, regardless of their level of self-esteem. In addition, both individuals with high self-esteem and low self-esteem who are in a positive mood elevate their mood further by making upward comparisons. However, for those who have recently experienced a threat to their self-esteem or a setback in their life, making upward social comparisons instead of downward social comparisons results in a more negative affect. Self-esteem and existence of a threat or setback in an individual's life are two moderators of their response to upward or downward comparisons.
Herek defines person characteristics as “relatively stable psychological needs, values, and orientations toward the world” (Herek, 1986). Through the content analysis and AFI, Herek found that individuals with experiential-schematic attitudes scored higher on the self-monitoring test, theorizing that experiential-schematic intergroup individuals are more sensitive to their surroundings as well as their own values. Herek also showed that persons who operate mainly on evaluative functions show strong concerns for their own well-being. Alternatively, social-expressive attitudes were found most amongst individuals who exhibited a high need for affiliation as well high self-presentation awareness (Snyder & DeBono, 1985). Ultimately, personality is a weak means for social influence as personality is typically stable across individuals.
The frog pond effect is a part of the wider social comparison theory. It relates to how individuals evaluate themselves based on comparisons to other people around them, and is generally due to upward comparisons. Davis first noticed this effect when he discovered that students evaluated their performance as worse based on their peers from their school. MacFarland and Buehler theorized that the effect happens because individuals self-monitor within-group rather than compare across groups. Individuals are affected by the frog pond effect the most when they come from an individualistic culture, lack strong social connections, and have low collective self-esteem.
(Nakao et al., 2012) performed a study to show the relation between the self-reference effect and people that are highly in altruism and low in altruism. This all starts with the medical prefrontal cortex (MPFC). People who are high in altruism did not show the self-reference effect compared to the participants low in altruism. The participants who frequently chose the altruistic behavior refer to the social desirability as a backboard (Nakoa et al., 2012). The relation the self-reference effect and altruism is the MPFC. When using the self-reference effect, people who are low in altruism, the same part of the brain is being used. Whereas the same is for people who are high in altruism when using social desirability. Social desirability ties into the different types of memory enhancement can vary for individual differences of past experiences. People's individual differences can show similar effects as the self-reference effect (Nakoa et al., 2012).
Social constructionism questions what is defined by humans and society to be reality. Therefore, social constructs can be different based on the society and the events surrounding the time period in which they exist. An example of a social construct is money or the concept of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/ value. Another example of a social construction is the concept of self/ self-identity. Charles Cooley stated based on his Looking-Glass-Self theory: "I am not who you think I am; I am not who I think I am; I am who I think you think I am." This demonstrates how people in society construct ideas or concepts that may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts.
In the absence of social science research, theorizing about the causes of the divergence between copyright laws and copynorms is necessarily speculative. Several tentative hypotheses have been suggested. A simple rational choice model might suggest that illegal copying is accepted simply because it is in the self-interest of individuals who can obtain copyrighted materials for free with very little risk of getting caught.
Social identity theory is described as a theory that predicts certain intergroup behaviours on the basis of perceived group status differences, the perceived legitimacy and stability of those status differences, and the perceived ability to move from one group to another.[3][5] This contrasts with occasions where the term "social identity theory" is used to refer to general theorizing about human social selves.[6] Moreover, and although some researchers have treated it as such,[7][8] social identity theory was never intended to be a general theory of social categorization.[2] It was awareness of the limited scope of social identity theory that led John Turner and colleagues to develop a cousin theory in the form of self-categorization theory,[1][5][9] which built on the insights of social identity theory to produce a more general account of self and group processes.[2][5] The term social identity approach, or social identity perspective, is suggested for describing the joint contributions of both social identity theory and self-categorization theory.[5][9][10] Social identity theory suggests that an organization can change individual behaviors if it can modify their self-identity or part of their self-concept that derives from the knowledge of, and emotional attachment to the group.[3]