Instruct: Given a question, retrieve relevant documents that answer the question.
Query: What was the first synthetic polymer?
The first modern example of polymer science is Henri Braconnot's work in the 1830s. Henri, along with Christian Schönbein and others, developed derivatives of the natural polymer cellulose, producing new, semi-synthetic materials, such as celluloid and cellulose acetate. The term "polymer" was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius, though Berzelius did little that would be considered polymer science in the modern sense. In the 1840s, Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward independently discovered that adding sulfur to raw natural rubber (polyisoprene) helped prevent the material from becoming sticky. In 1844 Charles Goodyear received a U.S. patent for vulcanizing natural rubber with sulfur and heat. Thomas Hancock had received a patent for the same process in the UK the year before. This process strengthened natural rubber and prevented it from melting with heat without losing flexibility. This made practical products such as waterproofed articles possible. It also facilitated practical manufacture of such rubberized materials. Vulcanized rubber represents the first commercially successful product of polymer research. In 1884 Hilaire de Chardonnet started the first artificial fiber plant based on regenerated cellulose, or viscose rayon, as a substitute for silk, but it was very flammable.[1] In 1907 Leo Baekeland invented the first synthetic plastic, a thermosetting phenol–formaldehyde resin called Bakelite.[2]
The World War II era marked the emergence of a strong commercial polymer industry. The limited or restricted supply of natural materials such as silk and rubber necessitated the increased production of synthetic substitutes, such as nylon[4] and synthetic rubber.[5] In the intervening years, the development of advanced polymers such as Kevlar and Teflon have continued to fuel a strong and growing polymer industry.
However, cellular recognition of natural polymers can easily initiate an immune response. Consequently, synthetic polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyurethane (PU), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), poly(L-lactide) (PLLA), and poly(ethylene-co-vinylacetate) (PEVA) have been developed as alternatives for integration into scaffolds. Being biodegradable and biocompatible, these synthetic polymers can be used to form matrices with a fiber diameter within the nanometer range. Out of these synthetic polymers, PCL has generated considerable enthusiasm among researchers. PCL is a type of biodegradable polyester that can be prepared via ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone using catalysts. It shows low toxicity, low cost and slow degradation. PCL can be combined with other materials such as gelatin, collagen, chitosan, and calcium phosphate to improve the differentiation and proliferation capacity (2, 17). PLLA is another popular synthetic polymer. PLLA is well known for its superior mechanical properties, biodegradability and biocompatibility. It shows efficient cell migration ability due to its high spatial interconnectivity, high porosity and controlled alignment. A blend of PLLA and PLGA scaffold matrix has shown proper biomimetic structure, good mechanical strength and favorable bioactivity.
Polymer chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that focuses on the chemical synthesis, structure, chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. The principles and methods used for polymers in chemistry are common to chemistry sub-disciplines [tecnical[organic chemistry]or non technical], analytical chemistry, and physical chemistry. Many materials have polymeric structures, from fully inorganic metals and ceramics to DNA and other biological molecules, however, polymer chemistry is typically referred to in the context of synthetic, organic compositions. Synthetic polymers are ubiquitous in commercial materials and products in everyday use, commonly referred to as plastics, rubbers, and composites. Polymer chemistry can also be included in the broader fields of polymer science or even nanotechnology, both of which can be described as encompassing polymer physics and polymer engineering. 
The Cohen brothers were looking for a commercial edge and became aware, in 1894, that Charles Cross, Edward Bevan and Clayton Beadle had patented their "artificial silk" which they named "Viscose" in the UK and "Rayon" in the US, and sold under the trade name "Dacron". Although natural polymers have been with around since time began, synthetic polymers are more recent and owe their origin to Alexander Parkes and his exhibits at the International Exhibition in London in 1862. The most basic building block of a polymer is a monomer, which, when combined with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, or fluoride, becomes a "polymers". The most important polymer, for fabric construction is Polyethylene terephthalate, more commonly known as "polyester". The bright vibrant synthetic fabrics made from these synthetic "building blocks" exhibit a silk "handle"; and all the comfort properties of natural fibres, imitating silk, wool and linen.
The list of synthetic polymers, roughly in order of worldwide demand, includes polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin (or Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more. More than 330 million tons of these polymers are made every year (2015).[13]
First Kovac team looked into the acetylene family of chemicals. This resulted in more than 20 papers and patents. By 1931, DuPont was manufacturing a synthetic rubber that this team created: neoprene. Due to political and trade troubles with Japan, the United States' main source of silk, that fiber was getting harder and more expensive to come by. DuPont wanted to develop a synthetic fiber that could replace it. Kovac and his team tackled this, too. In 1934 they pulled their first long, strong, flexible strands of a synthetic polymer fiber out of a test tube (pbs kovac). The corporation patented it as "nylon" the following year. In the course of this discovery, Kovac published 31 papers, establishing general theories about polymers and regularizing the terminology of the field. He had brought the world not just nylon, but knowledge of natural polymers and how they are formed.
Hybrid hydrogels combine synthetic and biological materials and take advantage of the best properties of each. Synthetic polymers are easily customizable and can be tailored for specific functions such as biocompatibility. Biological polymers such as peptides also have adventitious properties such as specificity of binding and high affinity for certain cells and molecules. A hybrid of these two polymer types allows for the creation of hydrogels with novel properties. An example of a hybrid hydrogel would include a synthetically created polymer with several peptide domains.
Synthetic polymers are human-made polymers. From the utility point of view they can be classified into four main categories: thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers and synthetic fibers. They are found commonly in a variety of consumer products such as money, glue, etc.
Synthetic polymers are the structural materials manifested in plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, building materials, furniture, mechanical parts, and adhesives. Synthetic polymers may be divided into thermoplastic polymers and thermoset plastics. Thermoplastic polymers include polyethylene, teflon, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyester, polyurethane, Poly(methyl methacrylate), polyvinyl chloride, nylons, and rayon. Thermoset plastics include vulcanized rubber, bakelite, Kevlar, and polyepoxide. Almost all synthetic polymers are derived from petrochemicals.
Since the invention of the first synthetic polymer product, bakelite, synthetic polymer products have frequently been invented.
Some examples of macromolecules are synthetic polymers (plastics, synthetic fibers, and synthetic rubber), graphene, and carbon nanotubes. Polymers may be prepared from inorganic matter as well as for instance in inorganic polymers and geopolymers. The incorporation of inorganic elements enables the tunability of properties and/or responsive behavior as for instance in smart inorganic polymers.
Two main groups of polymers exist: synthetic polymers and biopolymers. Synthetic polymers are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to as industrial polymers. Biopolymers occur within a respectfully natural environment, or without human intervention.
When Wallace Carothers arrived at DuPont in 1928 one of the tasks his group took on was the development of new synthetic fibers for textiles. At that time a number of natural polymers such as latex and cellulose were in common use, rayon as a semisynthetic from nitrated cellulose had recently been improved and begun upending the textile industries, and some fully synthetic polymers such as bakelite were also known and being used for certain applications, but the existing fully synthetic polymers could not be drawn into fibers and spun into thread, so great opportunity existed to manufacture thread and yarn from synthetic polymers to join or replace the existing fibers in the market (natural fibers such as cotton, wool, linen, and silk and artificial fiber in the various recently emerged types of rayon).
In the development of applications of biodegradable polymers, the chemistry of some polymers including synthesis and degradation is reviewed below. A description of how properties can be controlled by proper synthetic controls such as copolymer composition, special requirements for processing and handling, and some of the commercial devices based on these materials are discussed.
A synthetic polymer may be non-degradable or degradable. For the purpose of neural tissue engineering degradable materials are preferred whenever possible, because long-term effects such as inflammation and scar could severely damage nerve function. The degradation rate is dependent on the molecular weight of the polymer, its crystallinity, and the ratio of glycolic acid to lactic acid subunits. Because of a methyl group, lactic acid is more hydrophobic than glycolic acid causing its hydrolysis to be slower. Synthetic polymers have more wieldy mechanical properties and degradation rates that can be controlled over a wide range, and they eliminate the concern for immunogenicity. There are many different synthetic polymers currently being used in neural tissue engineering. However, the drawbacks of many of these polymers include a lack of biocompatibility and bioactivity, which prevents these polymers from promoting cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. Synthetic conduits have only been clinically successful for the repair of very short nerve lesion gaps less than 1–2 cm. Furthermore, nerve regeneration with these conduits has yet to reach the level of functional recovery seen with nerve autografts.
Polymer science or macromolecular science is a subfield of materials science concerned with polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics and elastomers. The field of polymer science includes researchers in multiple disciplines including chemistry, physics, and engineering.
There are two primary mechanisms through which biodegradation can occur. One is through physical decomposition through reactions such as hydrolysis and photodegradation, which can lead to partial or complete degradation. The second mechanistic route is through biological processes which can be further broken down into aerobic and anaerobic processes. The first involves aerobic biodegradition, where oxygen is present and important. In this case, the general equation seen below where C represents smaller fragments of the initial polymer such as oligomers. 
The second mechanism of biodegradation is by anaerobic processes, where oxygen is not present.
There are numerous organisms that have the ability to break down natural polymers. There are also synthetic polymers that have only been around for a hundred years with new features that microorganisms do not have the capability to break down. It will take millions of years before organisms can adapt to degrade all of these new synthetic polymers. Typically, after physical processes carry out the initial breakdown of the polymer, microorganisms will then take what is left and break down the components into even simpler units. These microorganisms normally take polymer fragments, such as oligomers or monomers, into the cell where enzymes work to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and polymer end products carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, methane, water, minerals, and biomass. These enzymes act in a variety of ways to break down polymers including through oxidation or hydrolysis. Examples of key enzymes include proteases, esterases, glycosidases, and manganese peroxidases.
Some familiar household synthetic polymers include: Nylons in textiles and fabrics, Teflon in non-stick pans, Bakelite for electrical switches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, etc. The common PET bottles are made of a synthetic polymer, polyethylene terephthalate. The plastic kits and covers are mostly made of synthetic polymers like polythene and tires are manufactured from Buna rubbers. However, due to the environmental issues created by these synthetic polymers which are mostly non-biodegradable and often synthesized from petroleum, alternatives like bioplastics are also being considered. They are however expensive when compared to the synthetic polymers.The eight most common types of synthetic organic polymers, which are commonly found in households are:
Recent work suggests that molecular recognition elements can be synthetically produced at the nano-scale, circumventing the need for naturally occurring molecular recognition elements for the development of sensing tools for small molecules. Bio-mimetic polymers such as peptoids can be used to recognize larger biological targets such as proteins and the conjugation of polymers to synthetic fluorescent nanomaterials can generate synthetic macromolecular structures that serve as synthetic antibodies for optical protein recognition and detection.
A thermoset polymer matrix is a synthetic polymer reinforcement first developed for structural applications, such as glass-reinforced plastic radar domes on aircraft and graphite-epoxy payload bay doors on the space shuttle. In polymer matrix composites, polymers act as binder or matrix to secure in place incorporated particulates, fibres or other reinforcements.
When applied to polymers, the term crystalline has a somewhat ambiguous usage. In some cases, the term crystalline finds identical usage to that used in conventional crystallography. For example, the structure of a crystalline protein or polynucleotide, such as a sample prepared for x-ray crystallography, may be defined in terms of a conventional unit cell composed of one or more polymer molecules with cell dimensions of hundreds of angstroms or more. A synthetic polymer may be loosely described as crystalline if it contains regions of three-dimensional ordering on atomic (rather than macromolecular) length scales, usually arising from intramolecular folding and/or stacking of adjacent chains. Synthetic polymers may consist of both crystalline and amorphous regions; the degree of crystallinity may be expressed in terms of a weight fraction or volume fraction of crystalline material. Few synthetic polymers are entirely crystalline.[41] The crystallinity of polymers is characterized by their degree of crystallinity, ranging from zero for a completely non-crystalline polymer to one for a theoretical completely crystalline polymer. Polymers with microcrystalline regions are generally tougher (can be bent more without breaking) and more impact-resistant than totally amorphous polymers.[42] Polymers with a degree of crystallinity approaching zero or one will tend to be transparent, while polymers with intermediate degrees of crystallinity will tend to be opaque due to light scattering by crystalline or glassy regions. Thus for many polymers, reduced crystallinity may also be associated with increased transparency.
Biodegradable polymers tend to consist of ester, amide, or ether bonds. In general, biodegradable polymers can be grouped into two large groups based on their structure and synthesis. One of these groups is agro-polymers, or those derived from biomass. The other consists of biopolyesters, which are those derived from microorganisms or synthetically made from either naturally or synthetic monomers. 
The most important character of sequence-controlled polymers is its controllable sequence of polymer backbone. Nonetheless, to realize a precise sequence control and to regulate sequences in greater polymer backbones are also the most urgent issue, which needs to be addressed in the field of sequence-controlled polymers. Great efforts have been made in development and optimization of methods to improve the sequence-control properties of currently existed synthetic methods and also to further brand-new methods with better synthetic efficiency and sequence control.
A wide variety of synthetic polymers are available with variations in main chain as well as side chains. The back bones of common synthetic polymers such as polythene, polystyrene and poly acrylates are made up of carbon-carbon bonds, whereas hetero chain polymers such as polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, polysulfides and polycarbonates have other elements (e.g. oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen) inserted along the backbone. Also silicon forms similar materials without the need of carbon atoms, such as silicones through siloxane linkages; these compounds are thus said to be inorganic polymers. Coordination polymers may contain a range of metals in the backbone, with non-covalent bonding present.