Instruct: Given a question, retrieve relevant passages that answer the question.
Query: Who discovered malaria?
Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, an army surgeon working in Secunderabad India, proved in 1897 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes, an event now commemorated via World Mosquito Day.[72] He was able to find pigmented malaria parasites in a mosquito that he artificially fed on a malaria patient who had crescents in his blood. He continued his research into malaria by showing that certain mosquito species (Culex fatigans) transmit malaria to sparrows and he isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.[73] He reported this to the British Medical Association in Edinburgh in 1898.
Malaria has been recognized since the Greek and Roman civilizations over 2,000 years ago, with different patterns of fever described by the early Greeks. In 1880, Alphonse Laveran discovered that the causative agent of malaria is a parasite. Detailed work of Golgi in 1886 demonstrated that in some patients there was a relationship between the 72-hour life cycle of the parasite and the chill and fever patterns in the patient. The same observation was found for parasites with 48-hour cycles. Golgi concluded that there must be more than one species of malaria parasite responsible for these different patterns of infection.
Klebs made some significant errors about infectious diseases. He believed, for example, that malaria was caused by a bacterium. In 1879, Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli and he claimed that they isolated a bacterium from the waters of Pontine Marshes in Roman Campagna. They concluded that the bacterium was the pathogen for malaria as they discovered it from damp soil in the region of malaria epidemics. They gave it the name "Bacillus malariae". They further experimented with the bacterial isolate which they injected into rabbits. They observed that infected rabbits developed fever and enlarged spleen, characteristics of malaria. They proposed that the malarial bacterium was transmitted by drinking contaminated water or inhalation from air. Klebs reported that antimalarial drug quinine killed the germ. The discovery was supported by leading malariologists of the time. It was then declared that the malaria problem was solved. When a French Army physician Charles Alphonse Laveran correctly discovered in 1880 that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite (which he called "Oscillaria malariae", now "Plasmodium falciparum"), the discovery was ignored in preference of the bacillus theory of Klebs and Tommasi-Crudeli. An American physician, though, George Miller Sternberg, proved that the bacillus did not cause specific symptoms of malaria in 1881. The bacillus theory was eventually proved wrong by the experimental demonstration of the mosquito-malaria theory in 1898.
Malaria: Malaria kills around 700,000 people annually in Africa. It is caused by a one-celled parasite and is spread by mosquitoes. Because Mali is part of the meningitis belt of Africa, Mali is especially susceptible to malaria during the dry season between December and June. Among all diseases, Malaria is the primary cause of death in Mali, especially for children who are under 5 years old. The entire population of Mali is at risk of Malaria, but those in northern Mali seem to have greater rates of risk with lower immunity to infection. However, there has been a significant increase in malaria prevention in Mali, resulting in a 50% reduction in mortality rates due to malaria for children under 5 from 2006 to 2012. There has been significant funding by organizations like the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), World Health Organization (WHO), President's Malaria Initiative (PMI), and global funding.
An important discovery was made by Patrick Manson in 1877 that mosquito could transmit human filarial parasite. Inferring from such novel discovery Albert Freeman Africanus King proposed the hypothesis that mosquitoes were the source of malaria. In the early 1890s Manson himself began to formulate the complete hypothesis, which he eventually called the mosquito-malaria theory. According to Manson malaria was transmitted from human to human by a mosquito. The theory was scientifically proved by Manson's confidant Ronald Ross in the late 1890s. Ross discovered that malaria was transmitted by the biting of specific species of mosquito. For this Ross won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902. Further experimental proof was provided by Manson who induced malaria in healthy human subjects from malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Thus the theory became the foundation of malariology and the strategy of control of malaria.
In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Algeria, he discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan, after observing the parasites in a blood smear taken from a patient who had just died of malaria. He found the causative organism to be a protozoan which he named "Oscillaria malariae", but later renamed "Plasmodium". This was the first time that protozoans were shown to be a cause of disease of any kind. The discovery was therefore a validation of the germ theory of diseases.
Bignami and his colleague Machiafava published a 169-page monograph "On Summer-Autumnal Fevers "in 1892, which was translated into English in 1894. They were the first to distinguish symptoms of "Plasmodium falciparum", the causative agent of tertian malaria, from benign forms. They found that the malaria parasites were spherical in nature (rather than filamentous, as generally believed), mainly intraerythrocytic (rather than free living), that the liberation of spores at segmentation (schizont rupture) caused fever, and that there were different species of malaria parasites (each with its own different characteristics, notably fever periodicity). They observed that malignant malaria was caused only by the parasite species causing aestivo-autumnal malaria. With Giuseppe Bastianelli, he discovered that in malarial patients, it was the young (early staged) "Plasmodium" that caused fevers, but not the old crescent forms (gametocytes), discovered by Alphonse Laveran. Specifically they found that the crescent forms appeared in the second week of fever. 
The 2015 Malaria Day in the Americas forum was held on November 5, 2015 at PAHO/WHO Headquarters in Washington, DC and featured videos, presentations, and discussions on Malaria Networks and Advocates, the regional launch of Roll Back Malaria's Action and Investment to Defeat Malaria (AIM) 2016 - 2030, and the work of ‘Malaria Champions of the Americas 2015.’ The finalists included the National Malaria Control Program of Brazil, the Honduras Ministry of Health Health Surveillance Unit, and the National Malaria Eradication Service (SENEPA) of Paraguay. The National Malaria Control Program from Brazil won the overall prize as the 2015 Malaria Champion of the Americas.
A French Army physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by microscopic parasite (now called "Plasmodium falciparum") in 1880. But scientists were sceptical until Golgi intervened. It was Golgi who helped him prove that malarial parasite was a microscopic protozoan. From 1885, Golgi studied the malarial parasite and its transmission. He established two types of malaria, tertian and quartan fevers caused by "Plasmodium vivax" and "Plasmodium malariae" respectively. In 1886, he discovered that malarial fever (paroxysm) was produced by the asexual stage in the human blood (called erythocytic cycle, or Golgi cycle). In 1889-1890, Golgi and Ettore Marchiafava described the differences between benign tertian malaria and malignant tertian malaria (the latter caused by "P. falciparum"). By 1898, along with Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli, Angelo Celli and Marchiafava, he confirmed that malaria was transmitted by "Anopheline" mosquito.
Yoeli is best known for his study and research of malaria at New York University. He developed the technique for testing rodent malaria parasites that was used on experimental research for chemotherapy and immunology. Before Yoeli's breakthrough, malaria research of parasites could only be done on human volunteers or monkeys. In 1974, Yoeli and his colleague, Bruce Hargreaves, discovered a mutant organism that causes cerebral malaria.
April 25 was designated as "Malaria Awareness Day" in 2007 by President George W. Bush, who called on Americans to join in on the goal to eradicate malaria on the African continent. President Bush described it as a day when "we focus our attention on all who suffer from this terrible disease -- especially the millions on the continent of Africa. We remember the millions more who died from this entirely preventable and treatable disease." President Bush shared the White House's strategic plan against malaria, which included endeavors to distribute bed nets with the New York-based nonprofit group Malaria No More.
During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012, the WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S/AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine. For the time being, insecticide-treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children.
Her best known work was a comprehensive study of "Plasmodium", the malaria parasite, and investigation of various chemotherapies for the disease. Later she studied drug resistance in this parasite, research that proved valuable to the British military in World War II. She discovered the potential for cross-resistance in these parasites during that same period. Bishop also discovered the protozoan "Pseudotrichomonas keilini" and worked with "Aedes aegypti", a malaria vector, as part of her research on the disease. Elected to the Royal Society in 1959, Bishop was the founder of the British Society for Parasitology and served on the World Health Organization's Malaria Committee.
Grassi made his first contribution on malaria in 1890, when he (with Raimondo Feletti) discovered "Haemamoeba vivax", later renamed "Plasmodium vivax". He described "Proteosoma praecox", the malaria parasite of birds. In 1891 he performed the first inoculation of malaria parasites from one bird into another. He was the first to compile a comprehensive monograph on the identity and impact of different malarial parasites. His work "Studi di uno Zoologo Sulla Malaria " in 1891 is as relevant today as it was in his time. His description of the specific characteristics responsible for benign tertian ("Haemamoeba vivax"), malignant tertian ("Laverania malariae", renamed "P. falciparum") and quartan ("Haemamoeba malariae", renamed "P. malariae") malaria resolved the confusion of the time. In addition, his monograph also presented the first conclusive depiction that the bite of only female "Anopheles" mosquitoes could transmit malaria. In a classic experiment, he dispatched 112 volunteers to the Capaccio plains, a malaria-endemic area, protected them from mosquito bites between dusk and dawn, and they did not get malaria (except five of them) compared with 415 unprotected volunteers who all contracted malaria. In 1898 he and Bignami were able to produce the final proof of mosquito transmission of malaria when they fed local mosquitoes ("A. claviger") on infected patients and found that uninfected individuals developed malaria through the mosquito bite.
On 9 July 1898 Ross wrote Manson:
Ross' scientific evidences were soon fortified by Italian biologists including Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, and Giuseppe Bastianelli, who discovered that human malarial parasite was transmitted by the actual biting (disproving one of Manson's hypotheses) of female mosquito. In 1899 they reported the infection of "Plasmodium falciparum" with the mosquito "Anopheles claviger" However the practical importance of validating the theory, i.e. control of mosquito vector should be an effective management strategy for malaria, was not realised by the medical community and the public. Hence in 1900 Patrick Manson clinically demonstrated that the bite of infected anopheline mosquitoes invariably resulted in malaria. He acquired carefully reared infected mosquitoes from Bignami and Bastianelli in Rome. His volunteer at the London School of Tropical Medicine, P. Thurburn Manson gave a detailed account of his malarial fevers and treatment after bitten by the mosquitoes. As he summarised, Manson's clinical trial showed that the practical solution to malaria infection was in:
The mainstay of malaria diagnosis has been the microscopic examination of blood, utilizing blood films. Although blood is the sample most frequently used to make a diagnosis, both saliva and urine have been investigated as alternative, less invasive specimens. More recently, modern techniques utilizing antigen tests or polymerase chain reaction have been discovered, though these are not widely implemented in malaria endemic regions. Areas that cannot afford laboratory diagnostic tests often use only a history of subjective fever as the indication to treat for malaria.
Artesunate is one of a number of artemisinin derivatives discovered and developed by Chinese scientists and registered in China since the 1980s. Since the 1990s, UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) have supported studies to assess the properties of the drug. There were already indications that artesunate, given rectally, was effective in severe malaria. Significant work with artemisinin suppositories in severe malaria was conducted in Viet Nam in the early 1990s, and clinical trials of rectal artesunate followed by mefloquine treatment in moderately severe malaria were conducted in the mid-1990s in Thailand.
Tommasi-Crudeli, along with German pathologist Edwin Klebs, made several discoveries that bacteria caused diseases such as typhoid and diphtheria. They discovered a new bacterium from mud and waters in 1879. This was the period of intense research for discovery of the causative agent and transmission of malaria. They found the short rod-shaped bacillus while investigating Roman Campagna. They believed that the bacteria was the pathogen for malaria as they discovered from damp soil in the region of malaria epidemics. They further claimed that through experimental injection in rabbits, the bacterium produced symptoms of malaria such as enlargement of spleen and fever. They theorised that malaria was spread by drinking bacteria-contaminated water or inhalation from air. They even gave the scientific name "Bacillus malariae". Klebs reported that antimalarial drug quinine killed the germ. The discovery was supported by leading malariologists of the time. When the news spread, it was declared that the malaria problem was solved. But an American physician George Miller Sternberg proved that the bacillus did not cause specific symptoms of malaria in 1881. The bacillus theory was eventually proved wrong by the experimental demonstration of the mosquito-malaria theory in 1898.
One of the successes was the development in the 1970s of the antimalarial drug artemisinin, which is a processed extract of "Artemisia annua", a herb traditionally used as a fever treatment. Artemisia annua has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years. In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his "Compendium of Materia Medica". Researcher Tu Youyou discovered that a low-temperature extraction process could isolate an effective antimalarial substance from the plant. Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source, "The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments", written in 340 by Ge Hong, which states that this herb should be steeped in cold water. The extracted substance, once subject to detoxification and purification processes, is a usable antimalarial drug – a 2012 review found that artemisinin-based remedies were the most effective drugs for the treatment of malaria. For her work on malaria, Tu received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Despite global efforts in combating malaria, it remains a large burden for the population. Although WHO recommends artemisinin-based remedies for treating uncomplicated malaria, artemisinin resistance can no longer be ignored.
In research conducted by W.V. King in 1916, it was discovered that "Anopheles" female mosquitoes are carriers of Malaria. In "A. Crucians", oocyst, the zygote stage of the life cycle, or sporozoites, a stage in the life cycle for the malaria organism, can be found in the species (in some individuals, both can be found). Approximately, 75% of "A. Crucians" will have plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that will cause malaria in humans when bitten by a carrier.
The web interface and database structure is based on the UCSC Genome Browser. UCSC Malaria Genome Browser brings together on a single screen the full DNA sequences of several species of the malaria parasite ("Plasmodium sp."), alongside experimental results and previously discovered genes collected from the literature. The program allows users to search through 14 chromosomes of the malaria parasite's genome, enter their own sequence data and notes, and compare findings across species. The Malaria Genome Browser also supports text and sequence based searches that provide quick, precise access to any region of specific interest in the malaria genome. This site contains the reference genome sequence and working draft assembly for "Plasmodium falciparum" from PlasmoDb, the "Plasmodium" genome database build 5.0.
In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan. He observed the parasites in a blood smear taken from a soldier who had just died of malaria. For this, he received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. This was the first time that protozoa were shown to be a cause of disease. His work helped inspire researchers and veterinarians today to try to find a cure for malaria in animals.
A German physician, Johann Friedrich Meckel, must have been the first to see "P. falciparum" but not knowing what it was. In 1847 he reported the presence of black pigment granules from the blood and spleen of a patient who died of malaria. The French Army physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, while working at Bône Hospital (now Annaba in Algeria), correctly identified the parasite as a causative pathogen of malaria in 1880. He presented his discovery before the French Academy of Medicine in Paris, and published it in "The Lancet", in 1881. He gave the scientific name "Oscillaria malariae". But his discovery was received with skepticism mainly because by that time leading physicians such as Theodor Albrecht Edwin Klebs and Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli claimed that they had discovered a bacterium (which they called "Bacillus malariae") as the pathogen of malaria. Laveran's discovery was widely accepted only after five years when Camillo Golgi confirmed the parasite using better microscope and staining technique. Laveran was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1907 for his work. In 1900, the Italian zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi categorized "Plasmodium" species based on the timing of fever in the patient; malignant tertian malaria was caused by "Laverania malariae" (now "P. falciparum"), benign tertian malaria by "Haemamoeba vivax" (now "P. vivax"), and quartan malaria by "Haemamoeba malariae" (now "P. malariae"). 
Danilewsky was the first to describe the bird malaria. He discovered the symptoms of malaria in birds such as acute anaemia, enlargement of liver and spleen, accumulation of pigments in the blood cells. He also gave the first clue to the similarity of malaria of birds to that of humans. (This idea was followed by Ronald Ross in 1898 who won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 for experimentally demonstrating the principle.) He identified the bird malaria parasites as "pseudovacules", and by 1885 he recognised for the first the existence of three separate genera of protozoan parasites in birds, now known as "Plasmodium", "Haemoproteus" and "Leucocytozoon". However his publication was in Russian and therefore was not accessible to outside Russia, until they were translated into French in a three-volume book "La Parasitologie Comparée du Sang" in 1889.
He is a recognised authority on anaemia, sickle cell disease and malaria in pregnancy. His researches on anaemia at Ibadan University led to the development of the solution to the serious life-threatening problem of extreme anaemia in late pregnancy. Another group to which he belonged, unraveled the influence of several haemoglobinopathies on pregnant women and their babies under African conditions, and how best to deal with the most dangerous of them, namely sickle cell disease. In Zaria, his collaborative studies on malaria in pregnancy discovered that protecting early teenage pregnant girls against malaria and anaemia conferred a hitherto unknown benefit: the protected girls grew taller, they produced bigger babies, yet the proportion of those of them who developed cephalopelvic disproportion and needed operative delivery, fell sharply. This offers hope that in malaria endemic areas, obstructed labour and vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) might be prevented by protecting these vulnerable girls against malaria and by adding nutritional supplements to their diets during pregnancy.