Instruct: Given a question, retrieve passages that can help answer the question.
Query: Who coined the term "marianismo"?
Marianismo is an aspect of the female gender role in the machismo of Hispanic American folk culture. It is the veneration for feminine virtues like purity and "moral" strength (with "morality" defined by the Vatican). For example, it represents the "virgin" aspect of the dichotomy. Evelyn Stevens states:
The symplastic transport was first realized by Eduard Tangl in 1879, who also discovered the plasmodesmata, a term coined by Eduard Strasburger, 1901. In 1880, Hanstein coined the term symplast. The contrasting terms apoplast and symplast were used together in 1930 by Münch.
According to marianismo, Latinas should withhold personal thoughts and needs in order to avoid disagreement.[7] Adherence to this belief is linked with higher rates of depression and anxiety in Latinas.[20] It also influences women to stay in violent interpersonal relationships.[18][7] Many Latinas perceive that "keeping things inside" causes their depression.[21]
Marianismo presents a foundation for normal female behavior within Latin countries. Under Marianismo, women are expected to present behavior that shows compliance to male dominance, strong ties to morality (especially relating to the Virgin Mary), and willing to give up everything for the name of family.[33] Like machismo, Marianismo sets up a list of rules that promotes how one needs to be when interacting with society, strongly encouraging a gap between the genders by reinforcing these beliefs in various ways throughout society. Latinos who are exposed to the constructs of Marianismo and Machismo are predisposed to behaviors normative within the Latino culture of what constitutes being a man and a woman. Expectations of behavior begin to be evident before birth with these social constructs, liberating and constricting both genders to fit inside a bubble deemed appropriate by Latino cultural values.[6] Men are viewed as providers and decision-makers for their family, while women are to provide emotional support to their families only.[6]
According to Marianismo beliefs, women are expected to be naïve about sex, which means that many girls and women are not taught about the spread of HIV.[36] Women receive social status when they maintain the appearance that they know little about sex, including the extramarital affairs of their husbands.[36] Many husbands have extramarital affairs as a way to prove their machismo, both with women and men. Men who have sex with men (MSM) often do not identify as gay, and in Peru, one study found that 47% of MSM reported to have had sex with a woman in the previous year, often without condoms, and many were married to a woman.[37] This behavior, combined with the willing ignorance from wives of these affairs, puts women at risk of HIV contraction. Most women in Latin American cultures with HIV contracted it from their sole sex partner, their husband.[38] Regardless of the sexual monogamy associated with Marianismo purity a woman adheres to, her status as HIV-positive threatens the identity she wants to associate with.[36]
It was at this time that the term "Cantopop" was first coined. The "Billboard" correspondent Hans Ebert, who had earlier coined the term "Cantorock" in 1974, noted a change in its style to something similar to British-American soft rock, therefore started to use the term Cantopop instead in 1978.
Some feminists criticize the concept of marianismo, suggesting that it simply legitimizes the social conditions of women in Latin America by making it seem valid and normal. They also note that marianismo is often presented as everything machismo is not; therefore femaleness is put into “the realm of passivity, chastity, and self-sacrifice”.[23] They argue marianismo suggests that if a woman has a job outside of the home, her virtues and her husband’s machismo are put into question. Women are simply an addition to the male ego; their only identity is found in being a virgin, wife, and mother.
She also states in her argument that the characteristics of the ideal woman are the same throughout the culture when she claims that "popular acceptance of a stereotype of the ideal woman [is] ubiquitous in every social class. There is near universal agreement on what a 'real woman' is like and how she should act".[3] However, she argues that most indigenous communitietes do not share the marianismo-machismo dichotomy.
In their book The Maria Paradox: How Latinas Can Merge Old World Traditions with New World Self-esteem (1996, G. P. Putnam), Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vazquez credit Stevens with introducing the concept of marianismo, citing the "ground-breaking essay written by Evelyn P. Stevens in 1973". They also discuss use of the term by academicians such as Sally E. Romero, Julia M. Ramos-McKay, Lillian Comas-Diaz, and Luis Romero. In their book, Gil and Vazquez use it as applicable across a variety of Latino/a cultures.[2]
Marianismo is said to have five "pillars", or specific beliefs that "good women" must adhere to.[6][7]
In her essay, Stevens defines Marianismo as "the cult of feminine spiritual superiority, which teaches that women are semidevine, morally superior to and spiritually stronger than men." She explains the characteristics of machismo: "exaggerated aggressiveness in intrasigence in male-to-male interpersonal relationships and arrogance and sexual aggression in male-to-female relationships." Stevens argues that marianismo and machismo are complements, and that one cannot exist without the other.
However, the term "lookism" was first coined in the 1970s within the fat acceptance movement. It was used in "The Washington Post" Magazine in 1978, which asserted that the term was coined by fat people who created the word to refer to "discrimination based on looks." The word appears in several major English language dictionaries. There is some overlap between the terms teratophobia, cacophobia and lookism.
Virginity is viewed as an important feature, and by abstaining from pre-marital sex, women keep shame from coming to themselves and their families.[6] Often, sex is associated with feelings of guilt and sadness in marianismo-abiding girls and women.[17][4] This is because sex is often framed in a dichotomy of either being for procreation or eroticism.[4]
Sex workers in Latin America have lower rates of risk for HIV than married women, because they have the ability to demand the usage of condoms. Sex workers have already deviated from the ideals associated with Marianismo by their careers and behaviors of sexual deviancy of norms, so they have a certain degree of sexual freedom to demand protection against HIV.[39]
Out of all those who say they coined the term, Ashish Gupta, COO of Evalueserve has the best claim. Published authors have credited him for coining the term in their works.
The ideas within marianismo include those of feminine passivity and sexual purity. In marianismo, power that is granted to women stems from the female ability to produce life.
Sociocultural factors in relation to traditional gender roles have impacted violence against women in Mexico. According to Pantaleo, "Under the view of patriarchy, two expressions are commonly used in Mexico to show the difference in status of males and females; these expressions are machismo and marianismo." Machismo is characterized by male power and aggression; while marianismo is characterized by subordination and domestic gender roles. As part of the marianismo ideology, women are expected to fulfill domestic roles as wives and mothers and to refrain from paid labor outside of the home.
She believes that marianismo is rooted in the awe and worship of female bodies, particularly in the context of pregnancy, exemplified by early cultures. She discusses the various versions of holy Mother figures found through the world, such as Ninhursaga, Mah, Ninmah, Innana, Ishtar, Astarte, Nintu, and Aruru. In many of these goddess' myths, there are stories of the young male figure in their lifves, be it a son or lover, disappearing. The response of the goddesses is typically grief, and as she grieves the earth is barren. Stevens argues that this may be an allegory or explanation of the seasons.
Latina women’s experiences in life hinder due to Marianismo. They are more likely to exhibit higher levels for pessimistic views in life and developing depression. Yet, they are also less likely to attempt unsafe behavior, such as underage drinking and use of substances.[34] Restrictions placed on their expected behaviors instills women to remain quiet about their issues. If efforts build to push away from the social constructs behind Marianismo, criticisms appear from the outside community. Even without going against the norm, stereotypes of Latina women are conjured up, similar to men under Machismo. They are viewed as “exotic”, implying they are secretly sexual deviants wanting to branch out from that ideology, or prefer to divulge in dangerous activities to make up for this “innocent” life they’ve been confined it. Furthermore, outside groups can ostracize the woman fighting against the norm, claiming she is going against her culture and faith by her challenges towards Marianismo[34]
Marianismo dictates the day-to-day lives of Latin American women. Stevens believes that marianismo will not disappear anytime soon because Latin American women still cling to the role. She points out that men follow machismo because they are taught to by their mothers, aunts, and grandmothers. She also says that women enforce marianismo in one another through shame. Stevens believes many women find comfort in their personal and historical identities by partaking in this system.
In marianismo, Stevens argues, it is the bad woman who enjoys premarital sex, whereas the good woman only experiences it as a marriage requirement. Many women speak of sex with their husbands to their priests by referring to coitus with their husbands' as "le hice el servicio" (or "I did him the service"). The belief system also believes that women should grieve heavily over family, encouraging women not to show any happiness or participate in anything that may bring them joy. Some have gained social prestige by mourning in these ways until they too die.
In Latin countries, a woman who presents herself in society without a man is frowned upon, as a man is the basis of family life and having a positive association within the community.[33] Machismo promotes aggression, dominance and entitlement— characteristics that can be applied when focusing on interpersonal violence.[35] When applying interpersonal violence, Latin women deal with the abuse from IPV from fear of losing their husbands, their children’s father and social status of admitting abuse to the outside world.[33] Marianismo promotes women to be self-sacrificing, leading for them to accept abuse continually and remain quiet from fear of losing their livelihood and dependency from their husbands. Given these characteristics, men remain dominant and exert their power over their partner, continuing the cultural establishment of patriarchy within Latin cultures.[33]
Two researchers with experience as therapists for Latin Americans, Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vasquez, present the beliefs they observed many of their patients holding as ten commandments in marianismo. They argue that marianismo demands the following beliefs be held by women:
Women often lose status if they are seen to be associating with people who are HIV positive, because people with HIV are often associated with sexual deviancy and impurity.[40]
According to Marianismo, there are only two types of women: those who are (or attempt to be) pure and those who are deviant. Deviance can be by rejecting family values such as the hierarchical structure upheld with respeto or by rejecting the image of virginity.