Instruct: Given a question, retrieve passages that answer the question.
Query: When did Australia kidnap Aboriginal children?
Official government estimates are that in certain regions between one in ten and one in three indigenous Australian children were forcibly taken from their families and communities between 1910 and 1970.
Indigenous Australians have lived in the Northern Territory for at least 40,000 years. In 1863 the Territory came under the control of South Australia which in 1910 passed the "Northern Territory Aboriginals Act 1910". The Act claimed to be for the "Protection and Control" of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of the Territory. Under the Act, the "Chief Protector of Aboriginals" was appointed as the legal guardian of every child whose mother was Aboriginal, and had the power to confine such children to a reserve or Aboriginal institution. That is, indigenous children could be removed by Administrative order, whereas non-Indigenous children at the time could only be removed by order of a Court. This policy of removing indigenous children from their family continued when control of the Northern Territory was transferred from South Australia to the federal government. The "Aboriginals Ordinance" 1918 extended these powers, putting Aboriginal females under the total control of the Chief Protector. Most of the Aboriginal institutions were operated by churches. From 1964 indigenous children could only be removed under the same circumstances as non-Indigenous children, however, the conditions of life for Indigenous people put them at greater risk of having their children removed on the ground of neglect or destitution. In 1971 97% of Territory children in foster care were Indigenous.
The Redfern Aboriginal Children's Services is a heritage-listed former residence and now community services building for indigenous children located at 18 George Street in the inner western Sydney suburb of Redfern in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was built from 1874 to 1875. It is also known as Redfern Aboriginal Children's Services and Archives, ACS and Denholme. The property is owned by Aboriginal Children's Service Ltd. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 13 July 2015.
Working conditions in the pearling and pastoral industries for Aboriginals in the Pilbara region around 1900 have been described as slavery with no wages paid, kidnapping as well as severe and cruel punishments for misbehaviour and absconding all common practices. The first strike by Indigenous people in Australia took place in 1946 in the Pilbara, when Aboriginal pastoral workers walked off the stations in protest at low pay and bad working conditions, a strike that lasted for over three years.
A "Royal Commission on the Administration of Aborigines and the Condition of the Natives" chaired by Dr Walter Edmund Roth (1861–1933), Chief Protector of Aborigines in Queensland, was conducted in 1904, and discussed the growing "half-caste problem[sic]". Most Aboriginal people were living in regional areas, where sexual exploitation of Aboriginal women by whites led to an increasing number of "degenerate" mixed-race children who were subsequently abandoned by their fathers. It led in 1905 to a new Act which extended the definition of Aboriginal to all half-caste[sic] children and made all Aboriginal persons as wards of the state with the Chief Protector of Aborigines made legal guardian in place of the parents, with powers to remove children from their parents' care and place them in custodial situations.
By 1816, kidnapping of Aboriginal children for labour had become widespread. In 1814, Governor Thomas Davey issued a proclamation expressing "utter indignation and abhorrence" in regards to the kidnapping of the children and in 1819 Governor William Sorell not only re-issued the proclamation but ordered that those who had been taken without parental consent were to be sent to Hobart and supported at government expense.
A number of young Aboriginal children were known to be living with settlers. An Irish sealer named Brien spared the life of the baby son of a native woman he had abducted, explaining, "as (he) had stolen the dam he would keep the cub." When the child grew up he became an invaluable assistant to Brien but was considered "no good" by his own people as he was brought up to dislike Aboriginal people, whom he considered "dirty lazy brutes." Twenty-six were definitely known (through baptismal records) to have been taken into settlers' homes as infants or very small children, too young to be of service as labourers. Some Aboriginal children were sent to the Orphan School in Hobart.. Lyndall Ryan reports fifty-eight Aboriginal people, of various ages, living with settlers in Tasmania in the period up to 1835.
Living conditions in remote Indigenous communities across Australia impact on animal and human health. There are many challenges when managing large dog populations within poorly resourced Indigenous communities. The impact of dog health on the human community is evidenced in the zoonotic diseases passed from animals to humans. In some Indigenous communities in Western Australia gastrointestinal diseases are a major problem in young children. In Western Australia, hospitalisation for gastroenteritis was 7 times higher in Aboriginal children than Non-Aboriginal children.
The 1893 "Education Act" of Western Australia gave white parents the power to object to any Aboriginal child attending any school also attended by their children, a provision which saw Aboriginal children progressively and completely excluded from the state education system.
In 1909, the Protector of Aborigines in South Australia, William Garnet South, reportedly "lobbied for the power to remove Aboriginal children without a court hearing because the courts sometimes refused to accept that the children were neglected or destitute." South argued that "all children of mixed descent should be treated as neglected."[25] His lobbying reportedly played a part in the enactment of the Aborigines Act 1911. This designated his position as the legal guardian of every Aboriginal child in South Australia, not only the so-called "half-castes".[25]
The population of Australia was 2,250,194.
Northern Territory was counted within South Australia (286,211) and was 3,451 plus 6,346 Aboriginals in settled districts. The population of Western Australia did not include full-blood Aborigines.
Newfong was the public relations director of the Aboriginal Medical Service in the Sydney suburb of Redfern. He also did public relations work for Channel Nine (Cyclone Tracey telephon), the Society for Crippled Children, National Aboriginal and Islander Health Organisation, and for the Aboriginal Development Commission. Writing in "The Australian" in 1986, Newfong defended Aboriginal legal services from attacks by the Police Federation of Australia, who criticised government funding for those services.
The indigenous population, estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788, declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease. Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers. A government policy of "assimilation" beginning with the "Aboriginal Protection Act 1869" resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the Stolen Generations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population. As a result of the 1967 referendum, the Federal government's power to enact special laws with respect to a particular race was extended to enable the making of laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land ("native title") was not recognised in law until 1992, when the High Court of Australia held in "Mabo v Queensland (No 2)" that the legal doctrine that Australia had been "terra nullius" ("land belonging to no one") did not apply to Australia at the time of British settlement.
Despite Australia’s ratification of the CRC in 1990, Australia has yet to effectively incorporate human rights into policy and legislative framework to benefit children and there are unacceptable gaps in the legal protection of children’s rights. Three groups of children are especially disadvantaged by the failure of governments: 
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children have child mortality rates of three times their non-aboriginal peers and are the least consulted in Australian policy; they Aboriginal children aged 10–17 are 24 times more likely to be jailed than non-Aboriginal children and Aboriginal children are almost 10 times more likely to be in out-of-home care.
• 428 children of asylum seekers remain in detention facilities in direct contravention to UN convention (At the time of publication, 1,048 children were in immigration detention)
• The numbers of children in out-of-home-care has increased by 51.5 per cent since 2005, yet Australia collects no data on the reasons why children are placed in care;
The Report also acknowledged that there has been some progress over the past five years. Positive developments include: commitment to the National Early Childhood Development Strategy, its implementation of a National Framework for Protecting Australia’s Children, the Plan to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children, and the commitment to Closing the Gap on Aboriginal health and education.
A total of 84 organisations and individuals endorsed the Report in whole or in part. 
The Listen to Children report became the primary reference document to challenge the Australian government representatives when they came before the UN in June 2012.
A new "Native Welfare Act" in 1954 did nothing to limit these removal powers under the 1936 Act, which continued unabated. However amendments to the "Native Welfare Act" in 1963 repealed all previous legislation and abolished the Chief Protector's powers to remove children of Aboriginal descent from their biological parents. Nevertheless the removal of Aboriginal children continued under the arbitrary implementation of the broad provisions of the Child Welfare Act of 1947.
The report closely examined the distinctions between "forcible removal", "removal under threat or duress", "official deception", "uninformed voluntary release", and "voluntary release".[19] The evidence indicated that in numerous cases, children were brutally and forcibly removed from their parent or parents,[20] possibly even from the hospital shortly after birth, when identified as mixed-race babies.[21] Aboriginal Protection Officers often made the judgement to remove certain children. In some cases, families were required to sign legal documents to relinquish care to the state. In Western Australia, the Aborigines Act 1905 removed the legal guardianship of Aboriginal parents. It made all their children legal wards of the state, so the government did not require parental permission to relocate the mixed-race children to institutions.[22]
The earliest introduction of child removal to legislation is recorded in the Victorian "Aboriginal Protection Act 1869". The Central Board for the Protection of Aborigines had been advocating such powers since 1860, and the passage of the Act gave the colony of Victoria a wide suite of powers over Aboriginal and 'half-caste' persons, including the forcible removal of children, especially 'at risk' girls. By 1950, similar policies and legislation had been adopted by other states and territories. According to the "Bringing Them Home" inquiry into the forced separation of indigenous children from their families, less than 17% of the children were adopted. The majority of these adoptions occurred after 1950 when authorities began promoting the fostering and adoption of Aboriginal children by white parents.
Isabel Flick was born in 1928 in Goondiwindi, Queensland, Australia . She then moved and grew up in an Aboriginal riverbank camp in the town of Collarenebri in northwestern New South Wales, on the bank of the Barwon River. This town was seen as a border between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people, as Aboriginals would experience hostility from the non-Aboriginal population when going into the main street. The Flick family moved around a lot, just as Mick and Celia Flick had, as a way of “keeping away from the system"imposed by the government in Australia. Both of Flick’s parents feared their children being taken away from them. Isabel Flick was always known for making trouble as a child, although she was a shy girl. She was known for being an encouraging and moving person when she spoke. At the age of 10 she was barred from formal education and even threatened with removal by the Protection Board. This was done in accordance with the ‘Dog Act’. This sparked her campaign for Aboriginal rights from her experience with such discrimination and mistreatment.
In 1911, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in South Australia, William Garnet South, reportedly "lobbied for the power to remove Aboriginal children without a court hearing because the courts sometimes refused to accept that the children were neglected or destitute". South argued that "all children of mixed descent should be treated as neglected". His lobbying reportedly played a part in the enactment of the Aborigines Act 1911; this made him the legal guardian of every Aboriginal child in South Australia, including so-called "half-castes". "Bringing Them Home", a report on the status of the mixed race stated "... the physical infrastructure of missions, government institutions and children's homes was often very poor and resources were insufficient to improve them or to keep the children adequately clothed, fed and sheltered."
In reality, during this period removal of the half-castes was related to the fact that most were offspring of domestics working on pastoral farms, whom by removing them allowed the mothers to continue working as help on the farm and removing the white landowners from responsibility for fathering them; and from social stigma for having such mixed race children visible in the home. Also when they were left alone on the farm they became targets of the men who contributed to the rise in the population of half-caste children. The institutional racism was government policy gone awry, one that allowed babies to be ripped from their mothers at birth, and this continued for most of the 20th century. That it was policy and kept secret for over 60 years is a mystery that no agency has solved to date.
In the 1930s, the Northern Territory Protector of Natives, Cecil Cook, perceived the continuing rise in numbers of "half-caste" children as a problem. His proposed solution was:
"Generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white." He did suggest at one point that they be all sterilized.
Similarly, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia, A. O. Neville, wrote in an article for "The West Australian" in 1930: "Eliminate in future the full-blood and the white and one common blend will remain. Eliminate the full blood and permit the white admixture and eventually, the race will become white."
After being fired from every position she has held in England, Nola Grayson, a woman with revolutionary ideas on teaching, is hired as a teacher/governess to the Hartford children on Reinhart Station in outback Australia, or so she thought. When she arrives, she finds out a man was expected, and she is told to return home. Determined to stay, she has to fight the prejudices of the station owner and the children’s father, two men with dark secrets, as well as the elements of a drought stricken land. She also has to bond with the Hartford children and deal with cattle rustlers and being kidnapped by a tribal aborigine.
Bomaderry Aboriginal Children's Home is a heritage-listed former Institutional home for Aboriginal children and now Nowra Local Aboriginal Land Council offices at 59 Beinda Street, Bomaderry, City of Shoalhaven, New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by United Aborigines Mission and built from 1908. It was also known as Bomaderry Children's Home; Bomaderry Babies Home; and United Aborigines Mission Home. The property is owned by Nowra Local Aboriginal Land Council. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 17 February 2012.
During this time, many Aboriginal people were victims of slavery by colonists alongside Pacific Islander peoples who were kidnapped from their homes. Between 1860 and 1970, under the guise of protectionist policies, people, including children as young as 12, were forced to work on properties where they worked under horrific conditions and most did not receive any wages. In the pearling industry, Aboriginal peoples were bought for about 5 pounds, with pregnant Aboriginal women "prized because their lungs were believed to have greater air capacity" Aboriginal prisoners in the Aboriginal-only prison on Rottnest Island, many of whom were there on trumped up charges, were chained up and forced to work. In 1971, 373 Aboriginal men were found buried in unmarked graves on the island. Up until June 2018, the former prison was being used as holiday accommodation. There has always been Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander resistance, from the arrival of colonists through to now. In 1938, over 100 Aboriginal peoples protested one of the first Australia Day celebrations by gathering for an "Aborigines Conference" in Sydney and marking the day as the "Day of Protest and Mourning". In 1963 the Yolngu people of Yirrkala in Arnhem Land sent two bark petitions to the Australian government to protest the granting of mining rights on their lands. The Yirrkala Bark petitions were traditional Aboriginal documents to be recognised under Commonwealth law. On Australia day in 1972, 34 years after the first "Day of Protest and Mourning", Indigenous activists set up the Aboriginal Tent Embassy on the lawn of Old Parliament House to protest the state of Aboriginal Australian land rights. The Tent Embassy was given heritage status in 1995, and celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2012, making it the longest, unanswered protest camp in the world.
There is an over-representation of Aboriginal people in the criminal justice system in Australia. Aboriginal Australians in Western Australia comprise between 3 and 4% of the general population. However, they comprise more than 42% of the prisoners in custody. Indigenous courts are one method in which the Western Australian government is attempting to remedy this imbalance. The involvement of indigenous Australians in the criminal court system has been trialled a number of times in Western Australia. The earliest is perhaps in 1930 when the State government established the Court of Native Affairs. This court dealt exclusively with criminal offences between Australian Aboriginal people against other Australian Aboriginal people. The court ceased to operate in 1954 and was criticised for removing important legal rights for Aboriginal defendants. Defendants were dealt with under tribal law rather than the general criminal law, and probably received sentences more severe than if dealt with under the general law. Another area of indigenous involvement was in the 1970s in the Kimberley region where magistrates informally invited Aboriginal Elders to sit with them when dealing with aboriginal offenders. More recently, magistrates have informally held what was called the “Wiluna Aboriginal Court” in 2001 and also the “Yandeyarra Circle Court” in 2003. The establishment of the current Aboriginal Community Court is a recognition of the benefits of “circle sentencing”. These were local initiatives by presiding stipendiary magistrates and did not reflect a whole of government approach.
Criticisms of ALSWA have included suggestions that the service works to defend Aboriginal men against all manner of charges, while doing little to help Aboriginal women and children who are sometimes the victims of violence and abuse from their menfolk. Some within the Aboriginal communities also suggested that the ALSWA did not do enough to prevent arrests of Aboriginals; and some police organisations, conservative politicians and newspapers have also spoken out against the ALSWA. There have also been political divisions within the organisation itself. The ALSWA has worked to improve interpreting services for Aboriginal defendants, although such services are still "nowhere near as comprehensive as they need to be". Despite its origins when lawyers were mainly white, ALSWA now claims to employ "the highest number of Aboriginal lawyers of any legal service in Australia".
The Aboriginal Children's Advancement Society, (ACAS), is an organisation in New South Wales, Australia that aims to achieve aboriginal reconciliation by improving the education of aboriginal children.
In "Kanyini", Bob Randall shares his knowledge of Anangu wisdom, stories of his personal journey and he explores some of the reasons behind the struggles of Aboriginal Australians in modern Australia. Randall explains that when European Australians came to Australia, they broke the four Kanyini Principles that were an integral part of Anangu life. Tjuukurpa was broken when Europeans imposed their law on the Anangu, Ngura was broken when Aboriginal people were forced to move away from their homelands, Walytja was broken when the children of Randall's generation were removed from their family as part of the Stolen Generations and Kurunpa was broken when Aboriginal spirituality was replaced with Christianity. In explaining the loss of his Kurunpa, Randall notes the disconnect between the teachings of the Bible and the actions of the white men who professed them.