Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that answer the question.
Query: When was Brown v. Board of Education?
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954),[1] was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision effectively overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court's unanimous (9–0) decision, which was partially influenced by Mendez v. Westminster, stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." As a result, de jure racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the Civil Rights Movement,[2] and a model for many future impact litigation cases.[3] However, the decision's fourteen pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court's second decision in Brown II (349U.S.(1955)) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed".
Prince Edward County High School is known for the landmark cases "Davis v. The Prince Edward County Board of Education" and "Griffin v. the Prince Edward County Board of Education". In 1951 the school, which was then called Moton High School, was all black and very impoverished. At the time, white students would attend public all white schools. "Davis v. The Prince Edward County Board of Education" became one of five others forming the foundation of the landmark case, "Brown Versus The Board of Education". By 1959, when the county schools were finally forced to integrate, Prince Edward County reacted by closing their public schools to both white and black students. Moton High School remained closed for several years, and black students who wanted an education, were forced out of the county. Moton High was eventually reopened as Prince Edward High School and later renamed Prince Edward County High School.
Hedgepeth and Williams v. Board of Education, Trenton, NJ, also known as the Hedgepeth–Williams case, was a 1944 New Jersey Supreme Court decision in a legal action brought by two mothers, Gladys Hedgepeth and Berline Williams, who sued the Trenton, New Jersey, Board of Education over racial discrimination against their children, Leon Williams and Janet Hedgepeth. It was a precursor to the "Brown v. Board of Education" case that prohibited racial segregation of school systems throughout the United States. Throughout the US this change made a huge difference in the integration of school.
"Lum" was effectively overruled by the Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954), which outlawed segregation in public schools. However, an important part of the decision still stands. The power of the state to make racial distinctions in its school system, and to determine the race of its students, has not been overturned because it was not an issue in "Brown v. Board of Education".
Cases that he won include "Gaines v. Dougherty County Board of Education", "Lockett v. Board of Education of Muscogee County", and "Harrington v. Colquitt County Board of Education" (involving multiple appeals over a period of time to gain full compliance with "Brown v. Board of Education" in those communities, accelerating the pace of desegregation in other areas); "Anderson v. City of Albany" and "Kelly v. Page" (reaffirming the right of citizens to peaceably assemble); "Bell v. Southwell" (ending the use of segregated polling booths, voiding an election where separate booths were used); "Brown v. Culpepper", "Foster v. Sparks", "Thompson v. Sheppard", "Pullum v. Greene", "Broadway v. Culpepper", and "Rabinowitz v. United States" (prohibiting use of jury selection lists on which blacks were underrepresented and ending the exclusion of blacks on juries on the basis of race); and "Johnson v. City of Albany" (ending discriminatory practices in local government employment).
In an article in Townhall, Thomas Sowell argued that When Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal," Dunbar High School was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court."[78]
The 1954 "Brown vs. Board of Education" decision was the beginning of the process of desegregation and the elimination of de jure discrimination. However, it was hard to determine the challenges that the process would present and the obstacles that would continue to exist.While the concept of "separate but equal" had been overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, it was clear that the racial divide had not yet been gapped. As the years since Brown v. Board of Education passed, both verbal and physical abuse continued. After Brown v. Board of Education, the desegregated environment proved to be strenuous and was going to require some work. The increase of racial tension and racial incidents in institutes of higher education is said to be due to the "lack of knowledge, experience, and contact with diverse peers; peer-group influence; increased competition and stress; the influence of off-campus groups and the media; alcohol use; changing values; fear of diversity; and the perception of unfair treatment". Although Brown v. Board of Education was ruled in 1954, actual integration did not completely occur until many years later; the U.S. Supreme Court held multiple hearings on the desegregation of schools, continuously they maintained that Brown v. Board of Education must be followed by schools, colleges, and universities. The manner in which Brown v. Board of Education was drawn out years after the decision helped instill racism in education by illustrating the extraordinary lengths some educational institutions would go to in order to avoid integration.
This school division contains public schools serving the independent city of Richmond, Virginia. It is occasionally described locally as Richmond City Public Schools to emphasize its connection to the independent city rather than the Richmond-Petersburg region at large or the rural Richmond County which is located in a different region northeast of the city.
Richmond Career Education and Employment AcademyFrom 1952 to 1961, Lewis F. Powell, Jr. was Chairman of the Richmond School Board. Powell presided over the school board at a time when the Commonwealth of Virginia was locked in a campaign of defiance against the Supreme Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education". Powell's law firm had represented one of the defendant school districts in the case that was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court under the "Brown" label. Powell did not take any part in his law firm's representation of that client school district. The lawsuit, "Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County", later became one of the five cases decided under the caption "Brown v. Board of Education" before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954. The Richmond School Board had no authority at the time to force integration, however, as control over attendance policies had been transferred to the state government. Powell later became president of the American Bar Association and an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
The Sumner Elementary School in Topeka, Kansas was involved in the "Brown v. Board of Education" case of Topeka in 1954. Linda Brown's attempted enrollment to the Sumner School was rejected by the Topeka Board of Education, thus forcing her to attend the all-black Monroe School, which was farther away from her home. Oliver Brown, Linda's father, then joined the class action lawsuit against the Topeka Board of Education that was eventually heard before the Supreme Court.
In the 1950s, Burey was diagnosed with flu or pleurisy, but was sick for months. She eventually learned that she had lung cancer. She hid her sickness from Marshall for months, as he was leading the case of "Brown v. Board of Education" at the US Supreme Court. After it ruled on May 17, 1954, she told Marshall about her illness. Richard Kluger credits Burey with being one of two people who had been indirectly active but important influencers of the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision, in his book, "Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality" (2011). Burey died of lung cancer on February 11, 1955, her 44th birthday, after 25 years of marriage. 
The case of Brown v. Board of Education as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases: Brown itself, Briggs v. Elliott (filed in South Carolina), Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (filed in Virginia), Gebhart v. Belton (filed in Delaware), and Bolling v. Sharpe (filed in Washington, D.C.).
When she graduated from high school, Reid studied at Howard University and then Tufts University, where she was exposed for the first time to students from different racial, ethnic and geographical backgrounds. When she started at Tufts as a sophomore, her intention was not to become a lawyer but rather gain a well-rounded education. Reid and her twin, who was studying at Yale, were majorly influenced by the 1954 major historic moment in American history for educational equity, Brown v Board of Education. Reid and her brother traveled to the Supreme Court in September 1958 to watch a decision related to Brown v Board, in which a case in Arkansas had been climbing the courts to prevent integration of schools in Little Rock. The case of Aaron v Cooper went to the supreme court, and Reid and her brother were able to witness Thurgood Marshall’s argument and the historic decision that continued the implementation of Brown v Board in all states.
Reid graduated magna cum laude from Tufts in 1962.
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, 396 U.S. 19 (1969), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ordered immediate desegregation of public schools in the American South. It followed 15 years of delays to integrate by most Southern school boards after the Court's ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) that segregated public schools were unconstitutional.
Powell also played an important role in local community affairs. He served on the Richmond School Board from 1951 and was Chairman from 1952 to 1961. Powell presided over the school board at a time when the Commonwealth of Virginia was locked in a campaign of defiance against the Supreme Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education". Powell's law firm had represented one of the defendant school districts in the case that was decided by the Supreme Court under the "Brown" label. Powell did not take any part in his law firm's representation of that client school district. The lawsuit, "Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County", later became one of the five cases decided under the caption "Brown v. Board of Education" before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954.
Works related to Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (347 U.S. 483) at Wikisource Text of Brown v. Board of Education, 347U.S. 483(1954) is available from: (US Park Service) Made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida. curated by Michigan State University's Diversity of Excellence through Artistic Expression , Civil Rights Digital Library. from C-SPAN's Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
The following year, in the case known as "Brown II", the Court ordered segregation to be phased out over time, "with all deliberate speed". "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" (1954) did not overturn "Plessy v. Ferguson" (1896). "Plessy v. Ferguson" was segregation in transportation modes. "Brown v. Board of Education" dealt with segregation in education. "Brown v. Board of Education" did set in motion the future overturning of 'separate but equal'.
Monroe Elementary, a segregated school that figured in the historic Brown v. Board of Education decision, through the efforts of The Brown Foundation working with the Kansas Congressional delegation place in the early 1990s, is now Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site. The Brown Foundation is largely responsible for the content of the interpretive exhibits at the Historic Site. The National Historic Site was opened by President George W. Bush on May 17, 2004.
Patterson, James T., and William W. Freehling. Brown v. Board of Education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy (Oxford University Press, 2001).
Not everyone accepted the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In Virginia, Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. organized the Massive Resistance movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them.[43] See, for example, The Southern Manifesto. For more implications of the Brown decision, see School integration in the United States.
William Rehnquist wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" when he was a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by 'liberal' colleagues but I think Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be reaffirmed." Rehnquist continued, "To the argument ... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minorities are."[62] Rehnquist also argued for Plessy with other law clerks.[63]
Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899), ("Richmond") was a class action suit decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. It is a landmark case, in that it sanctioned "de jure" segregation of races in American schools. The decision was overruled by "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954).
Prominent black newspapers such as the Chicago Defender and the Atlanta Daily World praised the Brown decision for upholding racial equality and civil rights. The editors of these newspapers recognized the momentous nature and symbolic importance of the decision. Immediately, "Brown v. Board of Education" proved to be a catalyst in inciting the push for equal rights in southern communities, just as Charles Houston and Thurgood Marshall had hoped when they devised the legal strategy behind it. Less than a year after the Brown decision, the Montgomery bus boycott began—another important step in the fight for African-American civil rights. Today, "Brown v. Board of Education" is largely viewed as the starting point of the Civil Rights Movement.
v, v., and vs can also be used as an abbreviation for the word versus when between two or more competing items (Ex: Brown v. Board of Education).
Keppel, Ben. Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture (LSU Press, 2016). xiv, 225 pp.
In an interview with radio hosts Tom Grover & Ryan Yonk, Buttars said that he "[doesn't] know of an example where the minority is being jeopardized by legislative action." When Grover mentioned "Brown v. Board of Education," which desegregated American schools, Buttars responded that he thought ""Brown v. Board of Education" is wrong to begin with." In response to public reaction to his statements and accusations of racism, Buttars responded, "I don't think there's a racial [sic] bone in my body..." and "I don't see black and white. I see people. I always have."