Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that can help answer the question.
Query: When was the IRS established?
The IRS originated with the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, a federal office created in 1862 to assess the nation's first income tax, which was to raise funds for the American Civil War. The temporary measure provided over a fifth of the Union's war expenses and was allowed to expire a decade later. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified authorizing Congress to impose a tax on income, and the Bureau of Internal Revenue was established. In 1953, the agency was renamed the Internal Revenue Service.
A new model chassis was introduced for the 2000 season. When updated for 2001 the chassis was designated as the IR-01 and for 2002 it was referred to as the IR-02.
For the 2003 season, Dallara rolled out the new IR-03 chassis. This chassis would later become the "de facto" "spec car" in the series. An aerodynamic update kit was released for 2007, which changed its designation to IR-05. In addition, paddle shifters began seeing use in 2008, further developing and evolving this generation of Dallaras. Chassis bearing both the IR-03 and the IR-05 designations saw use through the end of the 2011 season.
The early technical areas of interest of AIEE were electric power, lighting, and wired communications. Radio and wireless communications became the major focus of a rival organization, the Institute of Radio Engineers (the IRE, established 1912). The dynamic growth of radio technology and the emergence of the new discipline of electronics in the 1940s led to stiff competition between AIEE and IRE, with IRE showing faster growth in the 1950s and early 1960s, and attracting more students. In 1957, the IRE, with approximately 55,500 members, surpassed the AIEE in membership size; by 1962 the IRE had 96,500 members to the AIEE’s 57,000.
Sofradir was established in 1986 by Thales, Sagem and . The goal of establishing Sofradir was to create an organization that developed and produced IR detectors based on the focal plane array (FPA) technology developed at CEA/LETI. The Infrared Laboratory (Laboratoire InfraRouge) located within the public research institute at CEA/LETI located in Grenoble, France was established to perform research in order to develop future generations of FPAs. Sofradir was to bring these new generations of IR detectors to mature production levels.
The composite video signal is actually the video information superimposed on blanking. The total level of the composite video signal (blanking + video) is 1000 mV. This level can also be given in IRE units such that the level difference reserved for video information is 100 IRE units. So white corresponds to 100 IRE units and blanking level corresponds to 0 IRE units. The level of black is 0 IRE units in the case of CCIR System B and CCIR System G (European systems) and 7.5 IRE units in the case of CCIR System M (American system). So, while there is no difference between the black and the blanking levels in most systems they differ by 50 mV. in system M. (When defined in terms of voltage difference, 7.5 IRE units is almost equal to 50 mV.)
Note that video signals use the "IRE" unit instead of DC voltages to describe levels and amplitudes. Based on a standard 1 V NTSC composite-video signal that swings from -286 mV (sync tip) to +714 mV (peak video), a 140 IRE peak-to-peak convention has been established. One NTSC IRE unit is 7.14mV, where -40 IRE is equivalent to -286 mV, and +100 IRE is equivalent to +714 mV. Note that 0 IRE is equivalent to 0 V. The Black Level is equivalent to 53.57 mV (7.5 IRE)
Cells have advanced mechanisms for sensing their own need for iron. In human cells, the best-characterized iron-sensing mechanism is the result of post-transcriptional regulation of mRNA (the chemical instructions derived from DNA genes to make proteins). Sequences of mRNA called iron-responsive elements (IREs) are contained within the mRNA sequences that code for transferrin receptors and for ferritin. Iron-responsive element-binding protein (IRE-BP) binds to these mRNA sequences. On its own, the IRE-BP binds to the IREs of ferritin and transferrin receptor mRNA. But, when iron binds to the IRE-BP, the IRE-BP changes shape with the result that the IRE-BPs can no longer bind the ferritin mRNA. This liberates the mRNA to direct the cell to make more ferritin. In other words, when there is high iron in the cell, the iron itself causes the cell to produce more iron storage molecules. (The IRE-BP is an aconitase; for a schematic drawing of the shape change, see here).
The establishment of the GRA is part of the reforms in revenue administration of tax collection in Ghana which began in the mid-eighties when CEPS and IRS were taken out of the Civil Service and made semi- autonomous and self-accounting public sector institutions with separate boards. The National Revenue Secretariat (NRS) was set up to formulate revenue policies, manage tax reforms and supervise the activities of CEPS and IRS.
IRS-1 has a functional role in breast cancer progression and metastasis. Overexpression of PTEN in MCF-7 epithelial breast cancer cells inhibits cell growth by inhibiting MAPK pathway. ERK phosphorylation through IRS-1/Grb-2/Sos pathway is inhibited by phosphatase activity of PTEN. PTEN does not have effect on IRS-1 independent MAPK activation. When treated with insulin, ectopic expression of PTEN in MCF-7 suppresses IRS-1/Grb-2/Sos complex formation due to differential phosphorylation of IRS-1. Overexpression of IRS-1 has been linked to antiestrogen resistance and hormone independence in breast cancer. Tamoxifen (TAM) inhibits IRS-1 function, therefore suppressing IRS-1/PI3K signalling cascade in estrogen receptor positive (ER+) MCF-7 cell line. IRS-1 siRNA is able to reduce IRS-1 transcript level, thereby reducing protein expression in MCF-7 ER+ cells. Reduction of IRS-1 leads to decreased survival of these cells. siRNA treatment effects are additive to effects of TAM treatment. IGFRs and estrogen coaction facilitates growth in different breast cancer cell lines, however amplification of IGF1R signalling can abrogate need of estrogen for transformation and growth of MCF-7 cells. IRS-1 overexpression in breast cancer cells decreased estrogen requirements. This decrease is dependent on IRS-1 levels in the cells. Estradiol enhances expression of IRS-1 and activity of ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt pathways in MCF-7 and CHO cells transfected with mouse IRS-1 promoter. Estradiol acts directly on IRS-1 regulatory sequences and positively regulates IRS-1 mRNA production. Decreased anchorage- dependent/independent cell growth and initiation of cell death under low growth factor and estrogen conditions are observed in MCF-7 cells with down-regulated IRS-1. mir126 is underexpressed in breast cancer cells. mir126 targets IRS-1 at transcriptional level and inhibits transition from G1/G0 phase to S phase during cell cycle in HEK293 and MCF-7 cells. Transgenic mice overexpressing IRS-1 develop metastatic breast cancer.The tumors demonstrate squamous differentiation which is associated with β-catenin pathway. IRS-1 interacts with β-catenin both "in vitro" and "in vivo". IRS-1 and its homologue IRS-2 play distinct roles in breast cancer progression and metastasis. Overexpression of either one is sufficient to cause tumorogenesis "in vivo". Frequency of lung metastasis in IRS-1 deficient tumor is elevated opposing to IRS-2 deficient tumor, where it is decreased. Basically, IRS-2 has a positive impact on metastasis of breast cancer whereas a stronger metastatic potential is observed when IRS-1 is down-regulated. IRS-1 is strongly expressed in ductal carcinoma "in situ""," when IRS-2 is elevated in invasive tumors. Increased IRS-1 makes MCF-7 cells susceptible to specific chemotherapeutic agents, such as taxol, etoposide, and vincristine.Therefore, IRS-1 can be a good pointer of specific drug therapies effectiveness for breast cancer treatment.
Pratt joined the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE), became an IRE Director in 1935, served as president of the IRE in 1938, and was its secretary from 1943-1965. He was awarded the IRE Medal of Honor in 1944 "in recognition of his engineering contributions to the development of radio, of his work in the extension of communication facilities to distant lands, and of his constructive leadership in Institute affairs," and the Founder's Award in 1960. The IEEE Haraden Pratt Award was established in 1971 in his honor. His papers are archived at the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
Following several attempts to form a technical organization of wireless practitioners in 1908–1912, the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) was finally established in 1912 in New York City. Among its founding organizations were the Society of Wireless Telegraph Engineers (SWTE) and the Wireless Institute (TWI). At the time, the dominant organization of electrical engineers was the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE). Many of the founding members of IRE considered AIEE too conservative and too focused on electric power. Moreover, the founders of the IRE sought to establish an international organization (unlike the “American” AIEE), and adopted a tradition of electing some of the IRE's officers from outside the United States. 
The IEEE Computer Society traces its origins to the Subcommittee on Large-Scale Computing, established in 1946 by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE), and to the Professional Group on Electronic Computers (PGEC), established in 1951 by the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE). When the AIEE merged with the IRE in 1963 to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), these two committees became the IEEE Computer Group. The group established its own constitution and bylaws in 1971 to become the IEEE Computer Society.
In 1994, Fidelity Investments established a campus in Covington, constructing three office buildings on the campus, totaling approximately and employing 2,000 employees. At the same time the Fidelity campus was underway, Wessels Construction built the IRS Gateway Center on Scott Boulevard, between Third and Fourth Streets, which would employ approximately 2,000 IRS employees when completed.
Ire is the fifth studio album by Australian metalcore band Parkway Drive. The album was released on 25 September 2015, through Resist Records and Epitaph Records, and was streamed online on 20 September. The band sought to change their established style with "Ire", and reviewers have noted the inclusion of new influences.
The church recruited a retired IRS agent named Paul DesFosses, who left the agency in acrimonious circumstances in 1984, to head the coalition. It provided him with support and investigative assistance to find examples of wrongdoing in the IRS. The coalition's biggest success came in 1989 when its investigations prompted a congressional inquiry into allegations of wrongdoing by IRS staff in Los Angeles. The group claimed to have 5,000 members who were said to be mostly current and former IRS employees. Scientologists affiliated with the coalition demonstrated outside the IRS offices in Washington in 1990 and offered a $10,000 reward for information on "IRS abuses," but attracted little interest.
In molecular biology, the iron response element or iron-responsive element (IRE) is a short conserved stem-loop which is bound by iron response proteins (IRPs, also named IRE-BP or IRBP). The IRE is found in UTRs (untranslated regions) of various mRNAs whose products are involved in iron metabolism. For example, the mRNA of ferritin (an iron storage protein) contains one IRE in its 5' UTR. When iron concentration is low, IRPs bind the IRE in the ferritin mRNA and cause reduced translation rates. In contrast, binding to multiple IREs in the 3' UTR of the transferrin receptor (involved in iron acquisition) leads to increased mRNA stability.
Some tax protesters argue that the IRS is not a government agency, or that the IRS is not mentioned in the statutes, or that the IRS has no authority in the absence of established internal revenue "districts," or that the IRS has no authority outside the District of Columbia.
The two leading theories describe how iron probably interacts to impact posttranslational control of transcription. The classical theory suggests that IRPs, in the absence of iron, bind avidly to the mRNA IRE. When Iron is present, it interacts with the protein to cause it to release the mRNA. For example, In high iron conditions in humans, IRP1 binds with an iron-sulphur complex [4Fe-4S] and adopts an aconitase conformation unsuitable for IRE binding. In contrast, IRP2 is degraded in high iron conditions. There is variation in affinity between different IREs and different IRPs. Some IREs can also be affected by alternative gene splicing. In the second theory, There are two proteins competing for the IRE binding site—both IRP and eukaryotic Initiation Factor F4 (eIFF4). In the absence of iron IRP binds about 10 times more avidly than the initiation factor. However, when Iron interacts at the IRE, it causes the mRNA to change its shape, thus favoring the binding of the eIFF4. Several studies have identified non-canonical IREs. It has also been shown that IRP binds to some IREs better than others.
Like fellow Athens, Georgia natives the B-52s, R.E.M. was a 'cult' band who gradually built up a strong following in the US and internationally during the 1980s (thanks in part to their innovative music videos). For most of the 1980s they were signed to the independent label IRS Records and in 1987, they broke out to mainstream success with the album "Document", their first to sell more than one million copies. However, they were frustrated by IRS's poor international distribution and when their IRS contract expired in 1988 they signed with Warner Bros. Their Warner debut "Green" established them as a major force, earning a platinum album and selling more than 4 million copies worldwide, and "Stand" became their first US hit single.
Though the IR from a DPSS laser is less collimated, the typical neodymium-doped crystals in such lasers do produce a true IR laser beam. The eye will usually react to the higher-powered visible light; however in higher power DPSS lasers the IR laser output can be significant. What poses a special hazard for this unfiltered IR output is its presence in conjunction with laser safety goggles designed to only block the visible wavelengths of the laser. Red goggles, for example, will block most green light from entering the eyes, but will pass IR light. The reduced light behind the goggles may also cause the pupils to dilate, increasing the hazard to the invisible IR light. Dual-frequency so-called YAG laser eyewear is significantly more expensive than single frequency laser eyewear, and is often not supplied with unfiltered DPSS pointer style lasers, which output 1064 nm IR laser light as well. These potentially hazardous lasers produce little or no visible beam when shone through the eyewear supplied with them, yet their IR-laser output can still be easily seen when viewed with an IR-sensitive video camera.
Planning for Ir Ganim began in 1953. It was designed for a population of 8,000-10,000 new immigrants on 1,577 dunams of land. The first 500 housing units were built by the Rassco company employing a higher standard of building than other new immigrant neighborhoods. Each home had a private garden. Ir Ganim Aleph was established in 1957. Before moving to Ir Ganim, most of the residents had been living in "maabarot" (transit camps). Some of the land was owned by the Jewish National Fund and the rest was provided by the Israel Lands Administration.
In the first half of the 20th century, radio communications has experienced great expansion, and the growing professional community of developers and operators of radio systems required standardization, research, and authoritative dissemination of new results among practitioners and researchers. To meet these needs, the IRE established professional journals (most notably the "Proceedings of the IRE", established 1913 and edited for 41 years by Alfred N. Goldsmith); participated actively in all aspects of standardization and regulations of the frequency spectrum, modulation techniques, testing methods, and radio equipment; and organized regional and professional groups (starting in 1914 and 1948, respectively) for cooperation and exchange between members. The IRE was a major participant in planning of the Federal Radio Commission (established 1927; later the Federal Communications Commission), and worked in close cooperation with the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, the Radio Manufacturers Association, the Radio and Television Manufacturers Association, and the National Television System Committee on Standards. The IRE also started (in 1914) a program of professional recognition, through the membership grade of IRE Fellow. The first Fellow was Jonathan Zenneck (1871–1959), a pioneer of wireless telegraphy.
Žemaičių ir Lietuvos apžvalga (literally: "Samogitian and Lithuanian Review", original spelling: "Żemajczių ir Lietuwos Apżwałga"), often abbreviated as , was a Lithuanian-language Catholic newspaper published in Tilsit, East Prussia, in 1889–1896. At the time, Lithuanian press was banned and the newspaper had to be smuggled across the Prussia–Russia border. It promoted and supported the Lithuanian National Revival, but above all defended the Catholic faith. While it was fiercely anti-Tsarist publication when it came to religious and cultural topics, it was a socially conservative publication. It was replaced by a relatively more liberal "Tėvynės sargas" established in 1896.
Conversely, feminist IR scholar Charlotte Hooper effectively applies a feminist consciousness when considering how “IR disciplines men as much as men shape IR”. So, instead of focusing on what and whom IR excludes from the conversation, Hooper focuses on how masculine identities are perpetuated and ultimately are the products of the practice of IR. In this way, it is ineffective to use a gendered lens and feminist consciousness to analyze the exclusion of a discussion in gender in IR. Hooper suggests that a deeper examination of the ontological and epistemological ways in which IR has been inherently a masculine discipline is needed. The innate masculinity of IR is because men compose the vast majority of modern IR scholars, and their masculine identities have been socially constructed over time through various political progressions. For instance, Hooper gives examples of the historical and political developments of masculinities that are still prevalent in IR and society at large; the Greek citizen/warrior model, the Judeo Christian model and the Protestant bourgeois rationalist model. These track the masculine identities throughout history, where manliness is measured in militarism and citizenship, ownership and authority of the fathers, and finally, competitive individualism and reason. These masculinities in turn asks one to not only use the feminist consciousness to analyze the exclusions of femininities from IR, but additionally, Hooper illuminates how one can locate the inherent inclusions of masculinities in the field of IR with a feminist consciousness.
The iron-responsive element-binding protein (IRE-BP) and 3-isopropylmalate dehydratase (α-isopropylmalate isomerase; ), an enzyme catalysing the second step in the biosynthesis of leucine, are known aconitase homologues. Iron regulatory elements (IREs) constitute a family of 28-nucleotide, non-coding, stem-loop structures that regulate iron storage, heme synthesis and iron uptake. They also participate in ribosome binding and control the mRNA turnover (degradation). The specific regulator protein, the IRE-BP, binds to IREs in both 5' and 3' regions, but only to RNA in the apo form, without the Fe-S cluster. Expression of IRE-BP in cultured cells has revealed that the protein functions either as an active aconitase, when cells are iron-replete, or as an active RNA-binding protein, when cells are iron-depleted. Mutant IRE-BPs, in which any or all of the three Cys residues involved in Fe-S formation are replaced by serine, have no aconitase activity, but retain RNA-binding properties.