wikilangs/ckb

Central Kurdish - Wikilangs Models

Comprehensive Research Report & Full Ablation Study

This repository contains NLP models trained and evaluated by Wikilangs, specifically on Central Kurdish Wikipedia data. We analyze tokenizers, n-gram models, Markov chains, vocabulary statistics, and word embeddings.

📋 Repository Contents

Models & Assets

• Tokenizers (8k, 16k, 32k, 64k)
• N-gram models (2, 3, 4, 5-gram)
• Markov chains (context of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5)
• Subword N-gram and Markov chains
• Embeddings in various sizes and dimensions (aligned and unaligned)
• Language Vocabulary
• Language Statistics

Analysis and Evaluation

• 1. Tokenizer Evaluation
• 2. N-gram Model Evaluation
• 3. Markov Chain Evaluation
• 4. Vocabulary Analysis
• 5. Word Embeddings Evaluation
• 6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)
• 7. Summary & Recommendations
• Metrics Glossary
• Visualizations Index

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1. Tokenizer Evaluation

Results

Vocab Size	Compression	Avg Token Len	UNK Rate	Total Tokens
8k	3.742x	3.74	0.0597%	899,331
16k	4.157x	4.16	0.0663%	809,551
32k	4.517x	4.52	0.0721%	745,101
64k	4.804x 🏆	4.80	0.0766%	700,630

Tokenization Examples

Below are sample sentences tokenized with each vocabulary size:

Sample 1: پیشوا () شارێکە لە پارێزگای تاران، ئێران. ئەمانەش ببینە پێڕستی شارەکانی ئێران پێ...

Vocab	Tokens	Count
8k	▁پیش وا ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁لە ▁پارێزگای ▁تاران ، ▁ئێران . ... (+12 more)	22
16k	▁پیش وا ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁لە ▁پارێزگای ▁تاران ، ▁ئێران . ... (+12 more)	22
32k	▁پیش وا ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁لە ▁پارێزگای ▁تاران ، ▁ئێران . ... (+12 more)	22
64k	▁پیش وا ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁لە ▁پارێزگای ▁تاران ، ▁ئێران . ... (+12 more)	22

Sample 2: پەنەما نەتەوەیەکی بەشداربووی ئۆڵۆمپیادی ھاوینەی بوو کە لە ١٧ی ئایار تا ١٢ی ئابی ...

Vocab	Tokens	Count
8k	▁پەن ەم ا ▁نەتەوەیەکی ▁بەشداربووی ▁ئۆڵۆمپیادی ▁ھاوینەی ▁بوو ▁کە ▁لە ... (+20 more)	30
16k	▁پەنەما ▁نەتەوەیەکی ▁بەشداربووی ▁ئۆڵۆمپیادی ▁ھاوینەی ▁بوو ▁کە ▁لە ▁١٧ی ▁ئایار ... (+14 more)	24
32k	▁پەنەما ▁نەتەوەیەکی ▁بەشداربووی ▁ئۆڵۆمپیادی ▁ھاوینەی ▁بوو ▁کە ▁لە ▁١٧ی ▁ئایار ... (+14 more)	24
64k	▁پەنەما ▁نەتەوەیەکی ▁بەشداربووی ▁ئۆڵۆمپیادی ▁ھاوینەی ▁بوو ▁کە ▁لە ▁١٧ی ▁ئایار ... (+14 more)	24

Sample 3: بێثێل () شارێکە دەکەوێتە ویلایەتی ئالاسکا، ئەمریکا. ژمارەی دانیشتووانی بەپێی سەر...

Vocab	Tokens	Count
8k	▁بێ ث ێل ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁دەکەوێتە ▁ویلایەتی ▁ئالاسکا ، ▁ئەمریکا ... (+18 more)	28
16k	▁بێ ث ێل ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁دەکەوێتە ▁ویلایەتی ▁ئالاسکا ، ▁ئەمریکا ... (+18 more)	28
32k	▁بێ ث ێل ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁دەکەوێتە ▁ویلایەتی ▁ئالاسکا ، ▁ئەمریکا ... (+18 more)	28
64k	▁بێ ث ێل ▁() ▁شارێکە ▁دەکەوێتە ▁ویلایەتی ▁ئالاسکا ، ▁ئەمریکا ... (+18 more)	28

Key Findings

• Best Compression: 64k achieves 4.804x compression
• Lowest UNK Rate: 8k with 0.0597% unknown tokens
• Trade-off: Larger vocabularies improve compression but increase model size
• Recommendation: 32k vocabulary provides optimal balance for production use

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2. N-gram Model Evaluation

Results

N-gram	Variant	Perplexity	Entropy	Unique N-grams	Top-100 Coverage	Top-1000 Coverage
2-gram	Word	43,391	15.41	224,985	11.6%	28.8%
2-gram	Subword	307 🏆	8.26	12,264	66.4%	97.8%
3-gram	Word	66,250	16.02	298,666	10.5%	25.9%
3-gram	Subword	2,476	11.27	92,875	29.2%	70.6%
4-gram	Word	100,774	16.62	472,614	10.7%	24.7%
4-gram	Subword	13,099	13.68	482,188	14.0%	42.0%
5-gram	Word	72,668	16.15	353,585	11.8%	27.3%
5-gram	Subword	47,108	15.52	1,228,808	7.9%	26.8%

Top 5 N-grams by Size

2-grams (Word):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	لە ساڵی	47,065
2	کە لە	28,992
3	و لە	26,652
4	بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان	19,291
5	سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە	17,555

3-grams (Word):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان	17,516
2	دەستی بە چالاکی	7,882
3	لە دەستی بە	7,873
4	بە چالاکی کردووە	7,857
5	ئەمریکییەکانی سەدەی ٢٠ەم	7,760

4-grams (Word):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە	7,857
2	لە دەستی بە چالاکی	7,838
3	کردووە سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان	6,699
4	پیاوە ئەمریکییەکانی سەدەی ٢٠ەم	6,045
5	ئەمریکییە لە دەستی بە	5,227

5-grams (Word):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	لە دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە	7,827
2	ئەمریکییە لە دەستی بە چالاکی	5,227
3	ئەکتەرێکی ئەمریکییە لە دەستی بە	5,224
4	چالاکی کردووە سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان	4,624
5	دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە سەرچاوەکان	4,624

2-grams (Subword):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	ی _	3,411,049
2	ە _	1,937,601
3	ا ن	1,774,322
4	_ ب	1,264,353
5	ە ک	1,085,531

3-grams (Subword):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	_ ل ە	875,397
2	ن ی _	698,413
3	ل ە _	639,579
4	ا ن ی	592,978
5	_ ب ە	565,735

4-grams (Subword):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	_ ل ە _	625,605
2	ە ک ا ن	467,335
3	ا ن ی _	454,442
4	ک ا ن _	226,640
5	ک ا ن ی	214,980

5-grams (Subword):

Rank	N-gram	Count
1	ە ک ا ن _	217,466
2	ک ا ن ی _	198,040
3	ە ک ا ن ی	193,300
4	ی ە ک ا ن	146,991
5	ی ی ە ک ا	135,823

Key Findings

• Best Perplexity: 2-gram (subword) with 307
• Entropy Trend: Decreases with larger n-grams (more predictable)
• Coverage: Top-1000 patterns cover ~27% of corpus
• Recommendation: 4-gram or 5-gram for best predictive performance

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3. Markov Chain Evaluation

Results

Context	Variant	Avg Entropy	Perplexity	Branching Factor	Unique Contexts	Predictability
1	Word	0.8150	1.759	7.19	625,283	18.5%
1	Subword	1.1771	2.261	7.84	5,867	0.0%
2	Word	0.2642	1.201	1.74	4,486,871	73.6%
2	Subword	0.7063	1.632	4.63	46,011	29.4%
3	Word	0.0868	1.062	1.16	7,800,583	91.3%
3	Subword	0.7560	1.689	4.12	212,847	24.4%
4	Word	0.0293 🏆	1.021	1.05	9,049,668	97.1%
4	Subword	0.6434	1.562	2.94	877,504	35.7%

Generated Text Samples (Word-based)

Below are text samples generated from each word-based Markov chain model:

Context Size 1:

1. لە ئۆڵۆمپیادی زستانەی پێکھاتووە لە ساڵی لەلایەن ھێربێرت بێرگ لە ڕۆژھەڵاتی ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکان کە پ...
2. و تا ٤ی حوزەیرانی لە ١٩ی ئەیلوولی لە بەردەم ماڵەکەی دەسووتێ و بەم شێوەیەن و بنچینەکانی
3. بە ڕەچەڵەک هەنگاری یانۆس پرۆھاسکا ١٠ی ئەیلوولی بەنەخۆشی لە سەر ڕێڕەوەکە لە ڕێشە وشەی بە زمانی

Context Size 2:

1. لە ساڵی مەحموود پاشا ناردی بۆ لای خوا ڕاکێشێت پیاوێک ھەبوو کە لە ئەڵمانیا دانراون فیلمانەی لە
2. کە لە ئاشەکاندا بۆ ھاڕینەوەی گەنم بە کار دەھێنن ئەمەش سوود لە باروودۆخی کوژرانی خۆپیشاندەرانی کورد ک...
3. و لە ساڵی دروستکراوە و کارەکتەری ھونەریەکەی بە جەنەڕاڵی شانۆی کوردی سقز یەکێک لە خودایانی ھیندووەکان...

Context Size 3:

1. سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان فیلمە پیاوە ئەمریکییەکان تەلەڤیزیۆنی پیاوی ئەمریکی نێرەکانی کۆلۆرادۆ ...
2. دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە بەشداریی لە فیلمی ٣٠ ڕۆژ لە شەو و ڕۆژێکدا تەنھا ٢ کاتژمێر خەوتووە زۆرینەی
3. لە دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە بەشداریی لە زنجیرەی ھاوسدا کردووە سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان پیاوە ئەم...

Context Size 4:

1. دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان پیاوە ئەمریکییەکانی سەدەی ٢٠ەم فیلمە پیاوە ئەم...
2. لە دەستی بە چالاکی کردووە و تا بەردەوام بووە سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان پیاوە ئەمریکییەکانی سەدە...
3. کردووە سەرچاوەکان بەستەرە دەرەکییەکان پیاوە ئەمریکییەکانی سەدەی ٢٠ەم مافەکانی کۆمەڵگەی پەلکەزێڕینە ل...

Generated Text Samples (Subword-based)

Below are text samples generated from each subword-based Markov chain model:

Context Size 1:

1. _خصعە_ڕشدەکدیلە_
2. ەوەری_بانگەتی_بی
3. ی_تری_خانۆ_باموی

Context Size 2:

1. ی_جیادارەندادەی_ب
2. ە_پێ_کانە_ئامەزەک
3. انی_پەی_بۆ_گەکانی

Context Size 3:

1. _لە_بڕیاری_موونی_ئ
2. نی_ژمار_ناو_ھەبوو.
3. لە_ھاوی_و_لەسەنگی_

Context Size 4:

1. _لە_بەکار_و_دانوستا
2. انی_جینگ،_مایکل_٣_ئ
3. ەکان_بۆ_نیشتووان_ئە

Key Findings

• Best Predictability: Context-4 (word) with 97.1% predictability
• Branching Factor: Decreases with context size (more deterministic)
• Memory Trade-off: Larger contexts require more storage (877,504 contexts)
• Recommendation: Context-3 or Context-4 for text generation

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4. Vocabulary Analysis

Statistics

Metric	Value
Vocabulary Size	254,727
Total Tokens	10,896,559
Mean Frequency	42.78
Median Frequency	4
Frequency Std Dev	1719.93

Most Common Words

Rank	Word	Frequency
1	لە	632,400
2	و	442,707
3	بە	216,191
4	کە	179,841
5	بۆ	132,098
6	ساڵی	84,358
7	سەرچاوەکان	63,400
8	بوو	61,016
9	لەگەڵ	54,346
10	ئەم	49,216

Least Common Words (from vocabulary)

Rank	Word	Frequency
1	microarchitecture	2
2	gigabit	2
3	ethernet	2
4	سوپەرکۆمپیوتەرەکە	2
5	تایوانیا	2
6	بایۆمۆلیکولەر	2
7	principatele	2
8	دۆمنیتۆر	2
9	باربو	2
10	کاتارجیو	2

Zipf's Law Analysis

Metric	Value
Zipf Coefficient	1.0274
R² (Goodness of Fit)	0.992430
Adherence Quality	excellent

Coverage Analysis

Top N Words	Coverage
Top 100	31.2%
Top 1,000	55.6%
Top 5,000	73.7%
Top 10,000	80.5%

Key Findings

• Zipf Compliance: R²=0.9924 indicates excellent adherence to Zipf's law
• High Frequency Dominance: Top 100 words cover 31.2% of corpus
• Long Tail: 244,727 words needed for remaining 19.5% coverage

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5. Word Embeddings Evaluation

5.1 Cross-Lingual Alignment

5.2 Model Comparison

Model	Dimension	Isotropy	Semantic Density	Alignment R@1	Alignment R@10
mono_32d	32	0.8085	0.3591	N/A	N/A
mono_64d	64	0.8061	0.2799	N/A	N/A
mono_128d	128	0.7738	0.2134	N/A	N/A
aligned_32d	32	0.8085 🏆	0.3647	0.0280	0.1960
aligned_64d	64	0.8061	0.2755	0.0680	0.3020
aligned_128d	128	0.7738	0.2095	0.0960	0.3920

Key Findings

• Best Isotropy: aligned_32d with 0.8085 (more uniform distribution)
• Semantic Density: Average pairwise similarity of 0.2837. Lower values indicate better semantic separation.
• Alignment Quality: Aligned models achieve up to 9.6% R@1 in cross-lingual retrieval.
• Recommendation: 128d aligned for best cross-lingual performance

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6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)

This section presents an automated morphological analysis derived from the statistical divergence between word-level and subword-level models. By analyzing where subword predictability spikes and where word-level coverage fails, we can infer linguistic structures without supervised data.

6.1 Productivity & Complexity

Metric	Value	Interpretation	Recommendation
Productivity Index	5.000	High morphological productivity	Reliable analysis
Idiomaticity Gap	0.020	Low formulaic content	-

6.2 Affix Inventory (Productive Units)

These are the most productive prefixes and suffixes identified by sampling the vocabulary for global substitutability patterns. A unit is considered an affix if stripping it leaves a valid stem that appears in other contexts.

Productive Prefixes

Prefix	Examples
-ئە	ئەرمەنستانەوە, ئەرزەروم, ئەمبڕێلاوە
-بە	بەڕوودا, بەیاوبەس, بەلتیک
-دە	دەدایە, دەشتانە, دەیبرد

Productive Suffixes

Suffix	Examples
-ی	ویکیپدیای, نەوەکەی, جاگتای
-ە	ئینگلستانەوە, چۆنە, ناوەکیە
-ن	ئامانجەکان, کارلێککارەکان, ھەمەدانیان
-ان	ئامانجەکان, کارلێککارەکان, ھەمەدانیان
-نی	بووەکانی, مەجنونی, کۆمیکسەکانی
-وە	ئینگلستانەوە, تریەوە, ئەرمەنستانەوە
-ەوە	ئینگلستانەوە, تریەوە, ئەرمەنستانەوە
-ەی	نەوەکەی, وەزیفەی, حەوانەوەی

6.3 Bound Stems (Lexical Roots)

Bound stems are high-frequency subword units that are semantically cohesive but rarely appear as standalone words. These often correspond to the 'core' of a word that requires inflection or derivation to be valid.

Stem	Cohesion	Substitutability	Examples
انیا	1.88x	226 contexts	کانیا, خانیا, شانیا
ییەک	1.50x	396 contexts	چییەک, دییەک, دییەکی
ەمری	2.19x	44 contexts	دەمری, عەمری, کەمری
مریک	2.13x	48 contexts	ئێمریک, ئیمریک, ئەمریک
اوەک	1.50x	247 contexts	تاوەک, ماوەک, ڕاوەکە
وەکا	1.61x	150 contexts	وەکار, بوەکان, وەکاری
ەڵات	1.71x	100 contexts	هەڵات, سەڵات, خەڵات
ەسەر	1.59x	133 contexts	بەسەر, ئەسەر, کەسەر
رەکا	1.38x	274 contexts	ترەکان, چرەکان, مۆرەکان
ەرچا	2.05x	42 contexts	سەرچاو, بەرچاو, بەرچاون
رچاو	1.84x	60 contexts	قرچاو, رچاوه, سەرچاو
ردنی	1.72x	80 contexts	كردنی, مردنی, بردنی

6.4 Affix Compatibility (Co-occurrence)

This table shows which prefixes and suffixes most frequently co-occur on the same stems, revealing the 'stacking' rules of the language's morphology.

Prefix	Suffix	Frequency	Examples
-بە	-ی	83 words	بەرەوپێشبردنی, بەتانی
-بە	-ە	50 words	بەدواوەیە, بەدواداچوونەکە
-ئە	-ە	49 words	ئەفسانەییە, ئەستێرەیەکەوە
-دە	-ە	45 words	دەروونییەکانییەوە, دەرئەنجامەکە
-ئە	-ی	44 words	ئەهێنی, ئەوێی
-بە	-ن	38 words	بەرپرسەکەیان, بەرنامەکان
-دە	-ن	34 words	دەخرێن, دەکران
-دە	-ی	32 words	دەپەیوەندی, دەبیری
-بە	-نی	31 words	بەرەوپێشبردنی, بەتانی
-دە	-وە	26 words	دەروونییەکانییەوە, دەگوازیتەوە

6.5 Recursive Morpheme Segmentation

Using Recursive Hierarchical Substitutability, we decompose complex words into their constituent morphemes. This approach handles nested affixes (e.g., prefix-prefix-root-suffix).

Word	Suggested Split	Confidence	Stem
خراپەکارانەی	خراپەکار-ان-ەی	6.0	خراپەکار
گیاندارانەی	گیاندار-ان-ەی	6.0	گیاندار
کارانەیان	کاران-ەی-ان	6.0	کاران
ئۆرانیەوە	ئۆرا-نی-ەوە	6.0	ئۆرا
پسپۆڕانەوە	پسپۆڕ-ان-ەوە	6.0	پسپۆڕ
مێیەکانیان	مێیەک-انی-ان	6.0	مێیەک
ھاوسەرگیرییاندا	ھاوسەرگیریی-ان-دا	6.0	ھاوسەرگیریی
پێشەنگانەی	پێشەنگ-ان-ەی	6.0	پێشەنگ
ئابوورییەکانەوە	ئابوورییەک-ان-ەوە	6.0	ئابوورییەک
وەرزشکارانەی	وەرزشکار-ان-ەی	6.0	وەرزشکار
گۆرانییەکاندا	گۆرانییەک-ان-دا	6.0	گۆرانییەک
ئەمیرەکان	ئە-میرەک-ان	6.0	میرەک
ڕەبیعەیان	ڕەبیع-ەی-ان	6.0	ڕەبیع
بەھاندانی	بە-ھاند-انی	6.0	ھاند
ناوخۆییانەی	ناوخۆیی-ان-ەی	6.0	ناوخۆیی

6.6 Linguistic Interpretation

Automated Insight: The language Central Kurdish shows high morphological productivity. The subword models are significantly more efficient than word models, suggesting a rich system of affixation or compounding.

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7. Summary & Recommendations

Production Recommendations

Component	Recommended	Rationale
Tokenizer	64k BPE	Best compression (4.80x)
N-gram	2-gram	Lowest perplexity (307)
Markov	Context-4	Highest predictability (97.1%)
Embeddings	100d	Balanced semantic capture and isotropy

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Appendix: Metrics Glossary & Interpretation Guide

This section provides definitions, intuitions, and guidance for interpreting the metrics used throughout this report.

Tokenizer Metrics

Compression Ratio

Definition: The ratio of characters to tokens (chars/token). Measures how efficiently the tokenizer represents text.

Intuition: Higher compression means fewer tokens needed to represent the same text, reducing sequence lengths for downstream models. A 3x compression means ~3 characters per token on average.

What to seek: Higher is generally better for efficiency, but extremely high compression may indicate overly aggressive merging that loses morphological information.

Average Token Length (Fertility)

Definition: Mean number of characters per token produced by the tokenizer.

Intuition: Reflects the granularity of tokenization. Longer tokens capture more context but may struggle with rare words; shorter tokens are more flexible but increase sequence length.

What to seek: Balance between 2-5 characters for most languages. Arabic/morphologically-rich languages may benefit from slightly longer tokens.

Unknown Token Rate (OOV Rate)

Definition: Percentage of tokens that map to the unknown/UNK token, indicating words the tokenizer cannot represent.

Intuition: Lower OOV means better vocabulary coverage. High OOV indicates the tokenizer encounters many unseen character sequences.

What to seek: Below 1% is excellent; below 5% is acceptable. BPE tokenizers typically achieve very low OOV due to subword fallback.

N-gram Model Metrics

Perplexity

Definition: Measures how "surprised" the model is by test data. Mathematically: 2^(cross-entropy). Lower values indicate better prediction.

Intuition: If perplexity is 100, the model is as uncertain as if choosing uniformly among 100 options at each step. A perplexity of 10 means effectively choosing among 10 equally likely options.

What to seek: Lower is better. Perplexity decreases with larger n-grams (more context). Values vary widely by language and corpus size.

Entropy

Definition: Average information content (in bits) needed to encode the next token given the context. Related to perplexity: perplexity = 2^entropy.

Intuition: High entropy means high uncertainty/randomness; low entropy means predictable patterns. Natural language typically has entropy between 1-4 bits per character.

What to seek: Lower entropy indicates more predictable text patterns. Entropy should decrease as n-gram size increases.

Coverage (Top-K)

Definition: Percentage of corpus occurrences explained by the top K most frequent n-grams.

Intuition: High coverage with few patterns indicates repetitive/formulaic text; low coverage suggests diverse vocabulary usage.

What to seek: Depends on use case. For language modeling, moderate coverage (40-60% with top-1000) is typical for natural text.

Markov Chain Metrics

Average Entropy

Definition: Mean entropy across all contexts, measuring average uncertainty in next-word prediction.

Intuition: Lower entropy means the model is more confident about what comes next. Context-1 has high entropy (many possible next words); Context-4 has low entropy (few likely continuations).

What to seek: Decreasing entropy with larger context sizes. Very low entropy (<0.1) indicates highly deterministic transitions.

Branching Factor

Definition: Average number of unique next tokens observed for each context.

Intuition: High branching = many possible continuations (flexible but uncertain); low branching = few options (predictable but potentially repetitive).

What to seek: Branching factor should decrease with context size. Values near 1.0 indicate nearly deterministic chains.

Predictability

Definition: Derived metric: (1 - normalized_entropy) × 100%. Indicates how deterministic the model's predictions are.

Intuition: 100% predictability means the next word is always certain; 0% means completely random. Real text falls between these extremes.

What to seek: Higher predictability for text generation quality, but too high (>98%) may produce repetitive output.

Vocabulary & Zipf's Law Metrics

Zipf's Coefficient

Definition: The slope of the log-log plot of word frequency vs. rank. Zipf's law predicts this should be approximately -1.

Intuition: A coefficient near -1 indicates the corpus follows natural language patterns where a few words are very common and most words are rare.

What to seek: Values between -0.8 and -1.2 indicate healthy natural language distribution. Deviations may suggest domain-specific or artificial text.

R² (Coefficient of Determination)

Definition: Measures how well the linear fit explains the frequency-rank relationship. Ranges from 0 to 1.

Intuition: R² near 1.0 means the data closely follows Zipf's law; lower values indicate deviation from expected word frequency patterns.

What to seek: R² > 0.95 is excellent; > 0.99 indicates near-perfect Zipf adherence typical of large natural corpora.

Vocabulary Coverage

Definition: Cumulative percentage of corpus tokens accounted for by the top N words.

Intuition: Shows how concentrated word usage is. If top-100 words cover 50% of text, the corpus relies heavily on common words.

What to seek: Top-100 covering 30-50% is typical. Higher coverage indicates more repetitive text; lower suggests richer vocabulary.

Word Embedding Metrics

Isotropy

Definition: Measures how uniformly distributed vectors are in the embedding space. Computed as the ratio of minimum to maximum singular values.

Intuition: High isotropy (near 1.0) means vectors spread evenly in all directions; low isotropy means vectors cluster in certain directions, reducing expressiveness.

What to seek: Higher isotropy generally indicates better-quality embeddings. Values > 0.1 are reasonable; > 0.3 is good. Lower-dimensional embeddings tend to have higher isotropy.

Average Norm

Definition: Mean magnitude (L2 norm) of word vectors in the embedding space.

Intuition: Indicates the typical "length" of vectors. Consistent norms suggest stable training; high variance may indicate some words are undertrained.

What to seek: Relatively consistent norms across models. The absolute value matters less than consistency (low std deviation).

Cosine Similarity

Definition: Measures angular similarity between vectors, ranging from -1 (opposite) to 1 (identical direction).

Intuition: Words with similar meanings should have high cosine similarity. This is the standard metric for semantic relatedness in embeddings.

What to seek: Semantically related words should score > 0.5; unrelated words should be near 0. Synonyms often score > 0.7.

t-SNE Visualization

Definition: t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding - a dimensionality reduction technique that preserves local structure for visualization.

Intuition: Clusters in t-SNE plots indicate groups of semantically related words. Spread indicates vocabulary diversity; tight clusters suggest semantic coherence.

What to seek: Meaningful clusters (e.g., numbers together, verbs together). Avoid over-interpreting distances - t-SNE preserves local, not global, structure.

General Interpretation Guidelines

1. Compare within model families: Metrics are most meaningful when comparing models of the same type (e.g., 8k vs 64k tokenizer).
2. Consider trade-offs: Better performance on one metric often comes at the cost of another (e.g., compression vs. OOV rate).
3. Context matters: Optimal values depend on downstream tasks. Text generation may prioritize different metrics than classification.
4. Corpus influence: All metrics are influenced by corpus characteristics. Wikipedia text differs from social media or literature.
5. Language-specific patterns: Morphologically rich languages (like Arabic) may show different optimal ranges than analytic languages.

Visualizations Index

Visualization	Description
Tokenizer Compression	Compression ratios by vocabulary size
Tokenizer Fertility	Average token length by vocabulary
Tokenizer OOV	Unknown token rates
Tokenizer Total Tokens	Total tokens by vocabulary
N-gram Perplexity	Perplexity by n-gram size
N-gram Entropy	Entropy by n-gram size
N-gram Coverage	Top pattern coverage
N-gram Unique	Unique n-gram counts
Markov Entropy	Entropy by context size
Markov Branching	Branching factor by context
Markov Contexts	Unique context counts
Zipf's Law	Frequency-rank distribution with fit
Vocab Frequency	Word frequency distribution
Top 20 Words	Most frequent words
Vocab Coverage	Cumulative coverage curve
Embedding Isotropy	Vector space uniformity
Embedding Norms	Vector magnitude distribution
Embedding Similarity	Word similarity heatmap
Nearest Neighbors	Similar words for key terms
t-SNE Words	2D word embedding visualization
t-SNE Sentences	2D sentence embedding visualization
Position Encoding	Encoding method comparison
Model Sizes	Storage requirements
Performance Dashboard	Comprehensive performance overview

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About This Project

Data Source

Models trained on wikipedia-monthly - a monthly snapshot of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages.

Project

A project by Wikilangs - Open-source NLP models for every Wikipedia language.

Maintainer

Omar Kamali - Omneity Labs

Citation

If you use these models in your research, please cite:

@misc{wikilangs2025,
  author = {Kamali, Omar},
  title = {Wikilangs: Open NLP Models for Wikipedia Languages},
  year = {2025},
  doi = {10.5281/zenodo.18073153},
  publisher = {Zenodo},
  url = {https://huggingface.co/wikilangs}
  institution = {Omneity Labs}
}

License

MIT License - Free for academic and commercial use.

Links

• 🌐 Website: wikilangs.org
• 🤗 Models: huggingface.co/wikilangs
• 📊 Data: wikipedia-monthly
• 👤 Author: Omar Kamali
• 🤝 Sponsor: Featherless AI

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Generated by Wikilangs Models Pipeline

Report Date: 2026-01-04 00:20:16