page_id
int64 1
1.24M
| title
stringlengths 1
250
| content
stringlengths 0
77.3k
| content_no_link
stringlengths 0
73.1k
| importance
stringclasses 4
values | truncated
bool 2
classes | error
bool 2
classes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1
|
April
|
**April** (Apr.) is the fourth [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Julian](12158) and [Gregorian calendar](12159)s, and comes between [March](468) and [May](469). It is one of four months to have 30 [day](3539)s.
April always begins on the same day of the week as [July](402), and additionally, [January](400) in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as [December](185).
## The Month
April comes between [March](468) and [May](469), making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as [June](401), [September](684) and [November](530) are later in the year.
April begins on the same day of the week as [July](402) every year and on the same day of the week as [January](400) in [leap year](434)s. April ends on the same day of the week as [December](185) every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In [common year](3974)s, April starts on the same day of the week as [October](569) of the previous year, and in [leap year](434)s, [May](469) of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as [July](402) of the previous year, and in leap years, [February](262) and [October](569) of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as [January](400) of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as [September](684) and [December](185) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [June](401) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [March](468) and June of the following year.
April is a [spring](16382) month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) and an [autumn/fall](18860) month in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). In each [hemisphere](31981), it is the [season](6276)al equivalent of [October](569) in the other.
It is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the [Latin](6592) word "aperire", meaning "to open", referring to [flower](7947)s opening in [spring](16382). Another theory is that the name could come from [Aphrodite](5249), the Greek goddess of [love](9586). It was originally the second month in the old Roman [Calendar](7517), before the start of the new year was put to [January 1](7503).
Quite a few festivals are held in this month. In many [Southeast Asia](25254)n cultures, new year is celebrated in this month (including [Songkran](164578)). In Western [Christianity](219595), [Easter](14981) can be celebrated on a [Sunday](3837) between [March 22](7825) and [April 25](9878). In [Orthodox](7270) Christianity, it can fall between [April 4](5156) and [May 8](9518). At the end of the month, Central and Northern [Europe](216)an [culture](3476)s celebrate [Walpurgis Night](22481) on [April 30](9887), marking the transition from [winter](6643) into [summer](3640).
## April in poetry
[Poets](3886) use _April_ to mean the end of winter. For example: _April showers bring [May](469) flowers._
### Fixed Events
- [April 1](7553) - [April Fools' Day](28592)
- [April 1](7553) - Islamic Republic Day ([Iran](3772))
- [April 2](7787) - International Children's Book Day
- [April 2](7787) - [Thai](10138) Heritage and Conservation Day
- [April 2](7787) - World [Autism](8248) Awareness Day
- [April 2](7787) - Malvinas Day ([Argentina](54))
- [April 4](5156) - Independence Day ([Senegal](2888))
- [April 4](5156) - International Day for Landmine Awareness and Assistance
- [April 4](5156) - Peace Day ([Angola](53))
- [April 5](9835) - End of [Tax](4013) Year ([United Kingdom](856))
- [April 6](9876) - Tartan Day ([Canada](219589) and [United States](219587))
- [April 6](9876) - Chakri Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [April 7](9530) - Day of Maternity and Beauty ([Armenia](56))
- [April 7](9530) - Genocide Memorial Day ([Rwanda](15939))
- [April 7](9530) - World [Health](325) Day
- [April 7](9530) - Women's Day ([Mozambique](12338))
- [April 8](9149) - Buddha's Birthday ([Buddhism](3496))
- [April 9](9877) - Martyrs' Day ([Tunisia](7472))
- [April 9](9877) - Day of National Unity ([Georgia](14986))
- [April 9](9877) - Day of the [Finnish language](22220)
- [April 12](9891) - Cosmonauts' Day ([Russia](2964)), marking the day of [Yuri Gagarin](20413)'s space flight
- [April 13](9892) - Songkan ([Laos](5789)), local New Year celebration
- [April 13](9892) - [Cambodia](8493)n New Year
- [April 13](9892) - [Thomas Jefferson](7509)'s [Birthday](22419) ([United States](219587))
- [April 14](8720) - [Southeast Asia](25254)n [New Year](59249) festivals, including [Songkran](164578)
- [April 14](8720) - [Georgian language](52487) Day
- [April 14](8720) - Youth Day ([Angola](53))
- [April 14](8720) - Ambedkar Jayanti ([India](391))
- [April 14](8720) - Pan-American Day
- [April 15](5416) - [Tax](4013) Day ([United States](219587))
- [April 15](5416) - Kim Il-Sung's [Birthday](22419) ([North Korea](4074))
- [April 15](5416) - [Father Damien](59348) Day ([Hawaii](332))
- [April 15](5416) - [Jackie Robinson](110134) Day ([Major League Baseball](15798))
- [April 16](9888) - [Birthday](22419) of Queen [Margrethe II of Denmark](21394)
- [April 16](9888) - Emancipation Day (Washington, DC)
- [April 16](9888) - World [Voice](13785) Day
- [April 16](9888) - [Selena](224613) Day ([Texas](5324))
- [April 17](8719) - National Day of [Syria](6193)
- [April 17](8719) - Flag Day ([American Samoa](7864))
- [April 17](8719) - Women's Day ([Gabon](19599))
- [April 17](8719) - World Hemophilia Day
- [April 18](9882) - Independence Day ([Zimbabwe](7961))
- [April 18](9882) - Invention Day ([Japan](403))
- [April 18](9882) - International Day of [Monument](47977)s and Sites
- [April 19](9883) - [Bicycle](3674) Day
- [April 19](9883) - Dutch-American Friendship Day
- [April 19](9883) - [Birthday](22419) of King [Mswati III](683790) of Swaziland
- [April 19](9883) - Patriots' Day ([Massachusetts](9290), [Maine](10523), [Wisconsin](12412))
- [April 20](7785) - 4/20 in [Cannabis](11424) [Culture](3476)
- [April 21](9885) - [John Muir](365195) Day ([California](3009))
- [April 21](9885) - San Jacinto Day ([Texas](5324))
- [April 21](9885) - Kartini Day ([Indonesia](3334))
- [April 21](9885) - National [Tree](847) Planting Day ([Kenya](3440))
- [April 21](9885) - First Day of Ridran (Baha'i faith)
- [April 21](9885) - Grounation Day ([Rastafari movement](23185))
- [April 22](9884) - [Earth Day](292227)
- [April 22](9884) - Discovery Day ([Brazil](104))
- [April 23](7862) - [Saint George](5582)'s Day, celebrating the patron saint of several countries, regions and cities (including [England](3047) and [Catalonia](7426))
- [April 23](7862) - World [Book](3686) Day
- [April 23](7862) - National Sovereignty and [Child](7681)ren's Day ([Turkey](2860))
- [April 24](9880) - Democracy Day ([Nepal](14411))
- [April 24](9880) - Genocide Day ([Armenia](56))
- [April 24](9880) - [Republic](4978) Day (the Gambia)
- [April 25](9878) - [Australia](27) and [New Zealand](5072) celebrate [ANZAC Day](342751). [ANZAC](http://www.awm.gov.au/dawn/spirit/meaning.asp) means Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, and began in 1915.
- [April 25](9878) - World [DNA](4472) Day
- [April 25](9878) - World [Malaria](13448) Day
- [April 25](9878) - Flag Day (Swaziland, [Faroe Islands](19078))
- [April 25](9878) - Freedom Day ([Portugal](3466))
- [April 25](9878) - Liberation Day ([Italy](363))
- [April 25](9878) - Army Day ([North Korea](4074))
- [April 26](9879) - Union Day ([Tanzania](12839))
- [April 26](9879) - Confederate Memorial Day ([Texas](5324), [Florida](4015))
- [April 27](9881) - Independence Day ([Sierra Leone](19632) and [Togo](19324))
- [April 27](9881) - Freedom Day ([South Africa](3528))
- [April 27](9881) - World [Tapir](36672) Day
- [April 27](9881) - King's Day ([Netherlands](3463)) from [2014](85663), birthday of [Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands](182979)
- [April 28](5148) - Workers Memorial Day
- [April 28](5148) - National Day ([Sardinia](30990))
- [April 28](5148) - National Heroes Day ([Barbados](11471))
- [April 29](9886) - Showa Day ([Japan](403)), birthday of Emperor [Hirohito](24294), who died in [1989](3967)
- [April 29](9886) - International [Dance](187) Day
- [April 30](9887) - Former Queen's Day Holiday in the [Netherlands](3463) (changed to King's Day, [April 27](9881) in [2014](85663)), was the birthday of former Queen [Juliana of the Netherlands](181189)
- [April 30](9887) - Flag Day in [Sweden](2136) (birthday of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden)
- [April 30](9887) - International [Jazz](4714) Day
- [April 30](9887) - [Walpurgis Night](22481) (Central and Northern [Europe](216))
### Moveable Events
- [Easter](14981)-related events in Western [Christianity](219595):
- Palm Sunday (between [March 15](9869) and [April 18](9882))
- Maundy Thursday (between [March 19](9868) and [April 22](9884))
- Good Friday (between [March 20](8759) and [April 23](7862))
- [Easter](14981) Sunday (between [March 22](7825) and [April 25](9878))
- Easter Monday (between [March 23](9867) and [April 26](9879))
- Eastern Orthodox Easter falls between [April 4](5156) and [May 8](9518).
- Ascension Day (Western Christianity), falls between [April 30](9887) and [June 3](9920).
- [Jewish](219593) [Passover](287631) - falls in the same week as Western [Christianity](219595)'s [Holy Week](283582), which is the week leading up to [Easter](14981).
- [Mother's Day](332593) (UK) falls between [March 1](9860) and [April 4](5156).
- World [Snooker](28134) Championship (late April, early [May](469))
- [Horse racing](93661) - Grand National (UK), [Kentucky Derby](93667) ([United States](219587))
- Start of [Daylight Saving Time](42899) - Clocks going forward one hour:
- Most of [Mexico](1935)
- [Morocco](15294) ([Ramadan](26221) does not include Daylight Saving Time)
- End of [Daylight Saving Time](42899) - Clocks going back one hour:
- Southeast [Australia](27), and [New Zealand](5072)
- [Chile](4008)
- [Marathon](6580) Events in the following cities:
- [Belgrade](27762), [Serbia](5000)
- Boston, Massachusetts, [United States](219587)
- [Brighton](7783), [United Kingdom](856)
- [Enschede](32882), [Netherlands](3463)
- [London](460), [United Kingdom](856) (held in [October](569) from [2020](178089) to [2022](189000) because of [COVID-19](741645))
- [Madrid](473), [Spain](219832)
- [Paris](4467), [France](291)
- [Rotterdam](29573), [Netherlands](3463)
- [Utrecht](32679), [Netherlands](3463)
- Zurich, [Switzerland](2161)
## Selection of Historical Events
- [April 1](7553), [1918](9268) - The [Royal Air Force](19083) is founded.
- [April 1](7553), [1976](9080) - [Apple Inc.](7111) is founded.
- [April 1](7553), [1979](7474) - The Islamic Republic of Iran is founded.
- [April 1](7553), [1999](3955) - The [territory](156768) of [Nunavut](8112) is created in Northern [Canada](219589).
- [April 1](7553), [2001](3854) - The [Netherlands](3463) introduces [same-sex marriage](98406), as the first [country](121) to do so.
- [April 2](7787), [1519](10141) - [Florida](4015) is sighted by a [Europe](216)an for the first time.
- [April 2](7787), [1930](9853) - Haile Selassie becomes [Emperor of Ethiopia](20598).
- [April 2](7787), [1982](2999) - Start of the [Falklands War](178819), as Argentine forces land on the [Falkland Islands](7394).
- [April 2](7787), [2005](3964) - [Pope John Paul II](8047) dies aged 84, after years as [Pope](4681).
- [April 3](9874), [1973](8445) - The first-ever [mobile phone](26786) call is placed by Martin Cooper in [New York City](566).
- [April 4](5156), [1721](21063) - [Robert Walpole](32873) becomes the first [Prime Minister](3598) of [Great Britain](3051).
- [April 4](5156), [1841](17517) - [William Henry Harrison](14512) dies. He was [President of the United States](7174) for 31 days, the shortest-ever time in office for a US president.
- [April 4](5156), [1960](8426) - [Senegal](2888) becomes independent.
- [April 4](5156), [1968](8340) - [Assassination](19142) of Martin Luther King, Jr. in [Memphis, Tennessee](29239).
- [April 5](9835), [1722](39092) - Jacob Roggeveen becomes the first [Europe](216)an to land on [Easter Island](245424), landing there on [Easter](14981) Sunday.
- [April 6](9876), 1320 - [Scotland](3049)'s independence is confirmed with the Declaration of Arbroath.
- [April 6](9876), [1830](16852) - The [Mormon](14880) Church is founded.
- [April 6](9876), [1909](10294) - [Robert Peary](393329) claims to have been first at the [North Pole](2028) on this date.
- [April 7](9530), [1994](3960) - The [Rwandan Genocide](34190) begins.
- [April 9](9877), [1865](9044) - [American Civil War](6418): [Confederate](10002) forces under [Robert E. Lee](18047) surrender to Union forces.
- [April 9](9877), [1940](9212) - [World War II](219837): [Denmark](208) and [Norway](3460) are invaded by Nazi [Germany](219828).
- [April 9](9877), [1989](3967) - April 9 tragedy: In [Tbilisi](32121), [Georgia](14986), a peaceful demonstration for independence is broken up by the Soviet [Army](2115), killing 20 people. The country gains independence on this date exactly two years later.
- [April 10](9889), [1815](4593) - Mount Tambora in [Indonesia](3334) erupts in a huge eruption, affecting the world's climate for at least a year.
- [April 10](9889), [2010](14361) - A [plane](4700) crash near Smolensk, [Russia](2964), kills several people who were important in [Poland](3045), including [President](4044) Lech Kaczynski.
- [April 11](9890), [1814](16325) - Napoleon Bonaparte is [exile](48562)d to the [island](367) of [Elba](19023).
- [April 11](9890), [1954](7863) - Said to have been the most boring day of the [20th century](3407).
- [April 12](9891), [1861](16534) - The [American Civil War](6418) begins at [Fort Sumter](555370), [Charleston, South Carolina](99644).
- [April 12](9891), [1945](4629) - US President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](6346) dies, and [Harry S. Truman](5422) replaces him.
- [April 12](9891), [1961](8336) - [Yuri Gagarin](20413) becomes the first [human](502310) to fly into [space](2899).
- [April 14](8720), [1865](9044) - US President [Abraham Lincoln](5414) is shot dead at Ford's Theatre by [John Wilkes Booth](7574). Lincoln dies the next day.
- [April 14](8720), [2010](14361) - [Qinghai](386957) Province, [China](120), is hit by an [earthquake](2081), killing tens of thousands of people.
- [April 14](8720), [2010](14361) - The eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in [Iceland](2979) shuts down air traffic around [Europe](216) for a week, due to its ash cloud.
- [April 15](5416), [1912](9821) - The [ship](5816) RMS Titanic sinks near [Newfoundland](16653) after hitting an iceberg, resulting in the deaths of many of the people on board.
- [April 16](9888), [1943](8861) - [Albert Hofmann](86541) discovers LSD's effects.
- [April 17](8719), [1946](8917) - [Syria](6193) gains full independence from [France](291).
- [April 17](8719), [1955](9230) - [Albert Einstein](2138) dies.
- [April 18](9882), [1906](10853) - [1906 San Francisco earthquake](313801): [San Francisco](11481), [California](3009), is hit by a big [earthquake](2081), resulting in [fire](9476)s that destroy large parts of the city.
- [April 18](9882), [1980](8714) - [Zimbabwe](7961) gains full independence.
- [April 19](9883), [1897](15868) - The first [Boston Marathon](40187) is held.
- [April 19](9883), [1971](9117) - [Sierra Leone](19632) becomes a [republic](4978).
- [April 19](9883), [1993](3961) - The siege of the Branch Davidians at Waco, [Texas](5324), ends in a fire that kills 82 people.
- [April 19](9883), [1995](3959) - [Timothy McVeigh](127060) carries out the [Oklahoma City bombing](127065), killing 169 people.
- [April 19](9883), [2005](3964) - Joseph Alois Ratzinger becomes [Pope Benedict XVI](9330).
- [April 20](7785), [1889](16034) - [Adolf Hitler](4457) is born.
- [April 20](7785), [1902](4656) - [Marie Curie](47196) and [Pierre Curie](70876) refine [Radium](18437).
- [April 20](7785), [2010](14361) - [Deepwater Horizon oil spill](260745): A massive fire on the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the [Gulf of Mexico](33486) kills 11 workers and causes a massive [oil](578) spill, the worst spill in US history.
- [April 21](9885), 753 BC - Legendary founding date of [Rome](2875)
- [April 21](9885), [1509](11676) - Henry VIII of England becomes [King](410).
- [April 21](9885), [1908](11079) - Frederick Cook claims to have reached the [North Pole](2028) on this date.
- [April 22](9884), [1502](8495) - Pedro Alvares Cabral becomes the first [Europe](216)an to reach present-day [Brazil](104).
- [April 22](9884), [1970](4941) - [Earth Day](292227) is observed for the first time.
- [April 23](7862), [1533](8497) - The [Church of England](28053) declares that Henry VIII of England and [Catherine of Aragon](10967) are not married.
- [April 24](9880), [1916](11594) - The [Easter Rising](183188) occurs in [Dublin](186), [Ireland](361).
- [April 24](9880), [1990](8905) - The [Hubble Space Telescope](3944) is launched on the [Space Shuttle Discovery](286838).
- [April 25](9878), [1915](11701) - [World War I](219834): In [Turkey](2860), the Battle of Gallipoli begins, [Australia](27)n, French, British and [New Zealand](5072) forces land at Anzac cove.
- [April 25](9878), [1974](2971) - [Portugal](3466)'s dictatorship is overthrown in a coup, in what is known as the Carnation Revolution.
- [April 26](9879), [1937](8746) - [Spanish Civil War](24971): German planes bomb the town of Guernica, [Basque Country](688255), later depicted in a painting by [Pablo Picasso](16298).
- [April 26](9879), [1964](9255) - [Tanganyika](274413) and [Zanzibar](63261) merge to form [Tanzania](12839).
- [April 26](9879), [1986](9266) - A reactor explosion occurs at the [Chernobyl](23346) nuclear plant in present-day [Ukraine](3464), with [radiation](55918) spreading around Europe and the world.
- [April 26](9879)/[27](9881), [1994](3960) - [South Africa](3528) holds its first free elections.
- [April 27](9881), [1960](8426) - [Togo](19324) becomes independent from [France](291).
- [April 27](9881), [1961](8336) - [Sierra Leone](19632) becomes independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
- [April 28](5148), [1789](5155) - Mutiny on the ship Bounty in the [Pacific Ocean](1975), lead by [Fletcher Christian](110917).
- [April 28](5148), [1945](4629) - [Benito Mussolini](6754) is executed by Italian partisans.
- [April 28](5148), [1947](8355) - In [Peru](2915), Thor Heyerdahl starts his Kon-Tiki expedition aimed at proving his theory that the [Polynesia](29028)n settlers on the [Pacific Ocean](1975)'s [island](367)s came from [South America](1989).
- [April 29](9886), [1991](3963) - A [cyclone](65766) in [Bangladesh](15790) kills an estimated 138,000 people.
- [April 29](9886), [2011](31950) - The wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge is broadcast worldwide.
- [April 30](9887), [1789](5155) - [George Washington](5410) becomes the first [President of the United States](7174).
- [April 30](9887), [1803](19968) - The [United States](219587) purchases (buys) the [Louisiana](6207) territory from [France](291).
- [April 30](9887), [1945](4629) - [Adolf Hitler](4457) commits suicide on the same day that the Soviet Army raises the Red Flag on [Berlin](2922)'s Reichstag.
- [April 30](9887), [1952](6752) - The [Diary](219111) of [Anne Frank](6312) is published in English.
- [April 30](9887), [1975](7794) - The [Vietnam War](4536) ends, as [North Vietnam](24065)ese forces take Saigon.
- [April 30](9887), [1980](8714) - Queen [Juliana of the Netherlands](181189) abdicates the throne, and her daughter becomes Queen [Beatrix of the Netherlands](37751). Beatrix later also abdicates, on this day in [2013](34906), in favor of her son, King [Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands](182979).
## Trivia
- April has the 100th day of the year. April 10 in a common year, April 9 in a leap year.
- In Western [Christianity](219595), [Easter](14981) falls more often in April than in [March](468).
- The months around April ([March](468) and [May](469)) both start with an 'M' in the [English language](2843), with an 'A' as the second letter.
- In the [English language](2843), April is the first of three months in-a-row, along with [May](469) and [June](401), that is also a [female](3311) given name.
- The astrological signs for April are [Aries](67708) ([March 21](7545) to [April 20](7785)) and [Taurus](67712) ([April 21](9885) to [May 20](9825)).
- The sweet pea and [daisy](167827) are the traditional birth flowers for April.
- The birthstone for April is the [diamond](6490).
- [April 1](7553) is the only day in April to start within the first quarter of the [calendar](7517) year.
- If the months of the [year](944) were arranged in [alphabet](5892)ical order in the [English language](2843), April would come first.
- Five current [Europe](216)an [monarch](3601)s were born in April. They are King [Philippe of Belgium](410767) ([April 15](5416)), Queen [Margrethe II of Denmark](21394) ([April 16](9888)), [Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg](674629) ([April 16](9888)), King [Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands](182979) ([April 27](9881)), and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden ([April 30](9887)). [Elizabeth II](3447) of the [United Kingdom](856) and [Commonwealth realm](69179)s - who died on [September 8](9950), [2022](189000) - was also born in April (on [April 21](9885)).
|
**April** (Apr.) is the fourth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and comes between March and May. It is one of four months to have 30 days.
April always begins on the same day of the week as July, and additionally, January in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as December.
## The Month
April comes between March and May, making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as June, September and November are later in the year.
April begins on the same day of the week as July every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. April ends on the same day of the week as December every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In common years, April starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.
April is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn/fall month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of October in the other.
It is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the Latin word "aperire", meaning "to open", referring to flowers opening in spring. Another theory is that the name could come from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. It was originally the second month in the old Roman Calendar, before the start of the new year was put to January 1.
Quite a few festivals are held in this month. In many Southeast Asian cultures, new year is celebrated in this month (including Songkran). In Western Christianity, Easter can be celebrated on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25. In Orthodox Christianity, it can fall between April 4 and May 8. At the end of the month, Central and Northern European cultures celebrate Walpurgis Night on April 30, marking the transition from winter into summer.
## April in poetry
Poets use _April_ to mean the end of winter. For example: _April showers bring May flowers._
### Fixed Events
- April 1 - April Fools' Day
- April 1 - Islamic Republic Day (Iran)
- April 2 - International Children's Book Day
- April 2 - Thai Heritage and Conservation Day
- April 2 - World Autism Awareness Day
- April 2 - Malvinas Day (Argentina)
- April 4 - Independence Day (Senegal)
- April 4 - International Day for Landmine Awareness and Assistance
- April 4 - Peace Day (Angola)
- April 5 - End of Tax Year (United Kingdom)
- April 6 - Tartan Day (Canada and United States)
- April 6 - Chakri Day (Thailand)
- April 7 - Day of Maternity and Beauty (Armenia)
- April 7 - Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda)
- April 7 - World Health Day
- April 7 - Women's Day (Mozambique)
- April 8 - Buddha's Birthday (Buddhism)
- April 9 - Martyrs' Day (Tunisia)
- April 9 - Day of National Unity (Georgia)
- April 9 - Day of the Finnish language
- April 12 - Cosmonauts' Day (Russia), marking the day of Yuri Gagarin's space flight
- April 13 - Songkan (Laos), local New Year celebration
- April 13 - Cambodian New Year
- April 13 - Thomas Jefferson's Birthday (United States)
- April 14 - Southeast Asian New Year festivals, including Songkran
- April 14 - Georgian language Day
- April 14 - Youth Day (Angola)
- April 14 - Ambedkar Jayanti (India)
- April 14 - Pan-American Day
- April 15 - Tax Day (United States)
- April 15 - Kim Il-Sung's Birthday (North Korea)
- April 15 - Father Damien Day (Hawaii)
- April 15 - Jackie Robinson Day (Major League Baseball)
- April 16 - Birthday of Queen Margrethe II of Denmark
- April 16 - Emancipation Day (Washington, DC)
- April 16 - World Voice Day
- April 16 - Selena Day (Texas)
- April 17 - National Day of Syria
- April 17 - Flag Day (American Samoa)
- April 17 - Women's Day (Gabon)
- April 17 - World Hemophilia Day
- April 18 - Independence Day (Zimbabwe)
- April 18 - Invention Day (Japan)
- April 18 - International Day of Monuments and Sites
- April 19 - Bicycle Day
- April 19 - Dutch-American Friendship Day
- April 19 - Birthday of King Mswati III of Swaziland
- April 19 - Patriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, Wisconsin)
- April 20 - 4/20 in Cannabis Culture
- April 21 - John Muir Day (California)
- April 21 - San Jacinto Day (Texas)
- April 21 - Kartini Day (Indonesia)
- April 21 - National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
- April 21 - First Day of Ridran (Baha'i faith)
- April 21 - Grounation Day (Rastafari movement)
- April 22 - Earth Day
- April 22 - Discovery Day (Brazil)
- April 23 - Saint George's Day, celebrating the patron saint of several countries, regions and cities (including England and Catalonia)
- April 23 - World Book Day
- April 23 - National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey)
- April 24 - Democracy Day (Nepal)
- April 24 - Genocide Day (Armenia)
- April 24 - Republic Day (the Gambia)
- April 25 - Australia and New Zealand celebrate ANZAC Day. ANZAC means Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, and began in 1915.
- April 25 - World DNA Day
- April 25 - World Malaria Day
- April 25 - Flag Day (Swaziland, Faroe Islands)
- April 25 - Freedom Day (Portugal)
- April 25 - Liberation Day (Italy)
- April 25 - Army Day (North Korea)
- April 26 - Union Day (Tanzania)
- April 26 - Confederate Memorial Day (Texas, Florida)
- April 27 - Independence Day (Sierra Leone and Togo)
- April 27 - Freedom Day (South Africa)
- April 27 - World Tapir Day
- April 27 - King's Day (Netherlands) from 2014, birthday of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
- April 28 - Workers Memorial Day
- April 28 - National Day (Sardinia)
- April 28 - National Heroes Day (Barbados)
- April 29 - Showa Day (Japan), birthday of Emperor Hirohito, who died in 1989
- April 29 - International Dance Day
- April 30 - Former Queen's Day Holiday in the Netherlands (changed to King's Day, April 27 in 2014), was the birthday of former Queen Juliana of the Netherlands
- April 30 - Flag Day in Sweden (birthday of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden)
- April 30 - International Jazz Day
- April 30 - Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)
### Moveable Events
- Easter-related events in Western Christianity:
- Palm Sunday (between March 15 and April 18)
- Maundy Thursday (between March 19 and April 22)
- Good Friday (between March 20 and April 23)
- Easter Sunday (between March 22 and April 25)
- Easter Monday (between March 23 and April 26)
- Eastern Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8.
- Ascension Day (Western Christianity), falls between April 30 and June 3.
- Jewish Passover - falls in the same week as Western Christianity's Holy Week, which is the week leading up to Easter.
- Mother's Day (UK) falls between March 1 and April 4.
- World Snooker Championship (late April, early May)
- Horse racing - Grand National (UK), Kentucky Derby (United States)
- Start of Daylight Saving Time - Clocks going forward one hour:
- Most of Mexico
- Morocco (Ramadan does not include Daylight Saving Time)
- End of Daylight Saving Time - Clocks going back one hour:
- Southeast Australia, and New Zealand
- Chile
- Marathon Events in the following cities:
- Belgrade, Serbia
- Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Brighton, United Kingdom
- Enschede, Netherlands
- London, United Kingdom (held in October from 2020 to 2022 because of COVID-19)
- Madrid, Spain
- Paris, France
- Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Utrecht, Netherlands
- Zurich, Switzerland
## Selection of Historical Events
- April 1, 1918 - The Royal Air Force is founded.
- April 1, 1976 - Apple Inc. is founded.
- April 1, 1979 - The Islamic Republic of Iran is founded.
- April 1, 1999 - The territory of Nunavut is created in Northern Canada.
- April 1, 2001 - The Netherlands introduces same-sex marriage, as the first country to do so.
- April 2, 1519 - Florida is sighted by a European for the first time.
- April 2, 1930 - Haile Selassie becomes Emperor of Ethiopia.
- April 2, 1982 - Start of the Falklands War, as Argentine forces land on the Falkland Islands.
- April 2, 2005 - Pope John Paul II dies aged 84, after years as Pope.
- April 3, 1973 - The first-ever mobile phone call is placed by Martin Cooper in New York City.
- April 4, 1721 - Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain.
- April 4, 1841 - William Henry Harrison dies. He was President of the United States for 31 days, the shortest-ever time in office for a US president.
- April 4, 1960 - Senegal becomes independent.
- April 4, 1968 - Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee.
- April 5, 1722 - Jacob Roggeveen becomes the first European to land on Easter Island, landing there on Easter Sunday.
- April 6, 1320 - Scotland's independence is confirmed with the Declaration of Arbroath.
- April 6, 1830 - The Mormon Church is founded.
- April 6, 1909 - Robert Peary claims to have been first at the North Pole on this date.
- April 7, 1994 - The Rwandan Genocide begins.
- April 9, 1865 - American Civil War: Confederate forces under Robert E. Lee surrender to Union forces.
- April 9, 1940 - World War II: Denmark and Norway are invaded by Nazi Germany.
- April 9, 1989 - April 9 tragedy: In Tbilisi, Georgia, a peaceful demonstration for independence is broken up by the Soviet Army, killing 20 people. The country gains independence on this date exactly two years later.
- April 10, 1815 - Mount Tambora in Indonesia erupts in a huge eruption, affecting the world's climate for at least a year.
- April 10, 2010 - A plane crash near Smolensk, Russia, kills several people who were important in Poland, including President Lech Kaczynski.
- April 11, 1814 - Napoleon Bonaparte is exiled to the island of Elba.
- April 11, 1954 - Said to have been the most boring day of the 20th century.
- April 12, 1861 - The American Civil War begins at Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina.
- April 12, 1945 - US President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies, and Harry S. Truman replaces him.
- April 12, 1961 - Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to fly into space.
- April 14, 1865 - US President Abraham Lincoln is shot dead at Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln dies the next day.
- April 14, 2010 - Qinghai Province, China, is hit by an earthquake, killing tens of thousands of people.
- April 14, 2010 - The eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland shuts down air traffic around Europe for a week, due to its ash cloud.
- April 15, 1912 - The ship RMS Titanic sinks near Newfoundland after hitting an iceberg, resulting in the deaths of many of the people on board.
- April 16, 1943 - Albert Hofmann discovers LSD's effects.
- April 17, 1946 - Syria gains full independence from France.
- April 17, 1955 - Albert Einstein dies.
- April 18, 1906 - 1906 San Francisco earthquake: San Francisco, California, is hit by a big earthquake, resulting in fires that destroy large parts of the city.
- April 18, 1980 - Zimbabwe gains full independence.
- April 19, 1897 - The first Boston Marathon is held.
- April 19, 1971 - Sierra Leone becomes a republic.
- April 19, 1993 - The siege of the Branch Davidians at Waco, Texas, ends in a fire that kills 82 people.
- April 19, 1995 - Timothy McVeigh carries out the Oklahoma City bombing, killing 169 people.
- April 19, 2005 - Joseph Alois Ratzinger becomes Pope Benedict XVI.
- April 20, 1889 - Adolf Hitler is born.
- April 20, 1902 - Marie Curie and Pierre Curie refine Radium.
- April 20, 2010 - Deepwater Horizon oil spill: A massive fire on the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico kills 11 workers and causes a massive oil spill, the worst spill in US history.
- April 21, 753 BC - Legendary founding date of Rome
- April 21, 1509 - Henry VIII of England becomes King.
- April 21, 1908 - Frederick Cook claims to have reached the North Pole on this date.
- April 22, 1502 - Pedro Alvares Cabral becomes the first European to reach present-day Brazil.
- April 22, 1970 - Earth Day is observed for the first time.
- April 23, 1533 - The Church of England declares that Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon are not married.
- April 24, 1916 - The Easter Rising occurs in Dublin, Ireland.
- April 24, 1990 - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery.
- April 25, 1915 - World War I: In Turkey, the Battle of Gallipoli begins, Australian, French, British and New Zealand forces land at Anzac cove.
- April 25, 1974 - Portugal's dictatorship is overthrown in a coup, in what is known as the Carnation Revolution.
- April 26, 1937 - Spanish Civil War: German planes bomb the town of Guernica, Basque Country, later depicted in a painting by Pablo Picasso.
- April 26, 1964 - Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania.
- April 26, 1986 - A reactor explosion occurs at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in present-day Ukraine, with radiation spreading around Europe and the world.
- April 26/27, 1994 - South Africa holds its first free elections.
- April 27, 1960 - Togo becomes independent from France.
- April 27, 1961 - Sierra Leone becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- April 28, 1789 - Mutiny on the ship Bounty in the Pacific Ocean, lead by Fletcher Christian.
- April 28, 1945 - Benito Mussolini is executed by Italian partisans.
- April 28, 1947 - In Peru, Thor Heyerdahl starts his Kon-Tiki expedition aimed at proving his theory that the Polynesian settlers on the Pacific Ocean's islands came from South America.
- April 29, 1991 - A cyclone in Bangladesh kills an estimated 138,000 people.
- April 29, 2011 - The wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge is broadcast worldwide.
- April 30, 1789 - George Washington becomes the first President of the United States.
- April 30, 1803 - The United States purchases (buys) the Louisiana territory from France.
- April 30, 1945 - Adolf Hitler commits suicide on the same day that the Soviet Army raises the Red Flag on Berlin's Reichstag.
- April 30, 1952 - The Diary of Anne Frank is published in English.
- April 30, 1975 - The Vietnam War ends, as North Vietnamese forces take Saigon.
- April 30, 1980 - Queen Juliana of the Netherlands abdicates the throne, and her daughter becomes Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Beatrix later also abdicates, on this day in 2013, in favor of her son, King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands.
## Trivia
- April has the 100th day of the year. April 10 in a common year, April 9 in a leap year.
- In Western Christianity, Easter falls more often in April than in March.
- The months around April (March and May) both start with an 'M' in the English language, with an 'A' as the second letter.
- In the English language, April is the first of three months in-a-row, along with May and June, that is also a female given name.
- The astrological signs for April are Aries (March 21 to April 20) and Taurus (April 21 to May 20).
- The sweet pea and daisy are the traditional birth flowers for April.
- The birthstone for April is the diamond.
- April 1 is the only day in April to start within the first quarter of the calendar year.
- If the months of the year were arranged in alphabetical order in the English language, April would come first.
- Five current European monarchs were born in April. They are King Philippe of Belgium (April 15), Queen Margrethe II of Denmark (April 16), Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (April 16), King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (April 27), and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden (April 30). Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms - who died on September 8, 2022 - was also born in April (on April 21).
|
high
| false
| false
|
2
|
August
|
**August** (Aug.) is the eighth [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming between [July](402) and [September](684). It has 31 [day](3539)s. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar.
August does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in [common year](3974)s, but begins on the same day of the week as [February](262) in [leap year](434)s. August always ends on the same day of the week as [November](530).
## The Month
This month was first called _Sextilis_ in [Latin](6592), because it was the sixth month in the old [Roman calendar](606601). The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with [Romulus](14827). [October](569) was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King [Numa Pompilius](555265) about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC [January 1](7503) was determined as the beginning of the year.
August is named for Augustus Caesar who became [Roman consul](272368) in this month. The month has 31 days because [Julius Caesar](5940) added two days when he created the [Julian calendar](12158) in [45 BC](449335). August is after July and before September.
August, in either [hemisphere](31981), is the seasonal equivalent of [February](262) in the other. In the [Northern hemisphere](6829) it is a [summer](3640) month and it is a [winter](6643) month in the [Southern hemisphere](12161).
No other month in [common year](3974)s begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as [February](262) in [leap year](434)s. August ends on the same day of the week as [November](530) every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In common years, August starts on the same day of the week as [March](468) and [November](530) of the previous year, and in leap years, [June](401) of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, [September](684) of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, August starts on the same day of the week as [May](469) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [October](569) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [February](262) and October of the following year.
### Fixed observances and events
- [August 1](9955) – National Day of [Switzerland](2161)
- [August 1](9955) – Independence Day ([Benin](15644))
- [August 1](9955) – Emancipation Day ([Bermuda](20612), [Guyana](11622), [Jamaica](11218), [Barbados](11471), [Trinidad and Tobago](17751))
- [August 1](9955) – Army Day ([People's Republic of China](600))
- [August 1](9955) – [Lammas](394746), cross-quarter day in the [Celtic](49725) [calendar](7517)
- [August 1](9955) – Statehood Day ([Colorado](10984))
- [August 2](9954) – Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia)
- [August 2](9954) – Emancipation Day (Bahamas)
- [August 3](9953) – Independence Day ([Niger](18023))
- [August 5](9791) – Independence Day ([Burkina Faso](19175))
- [August 5](9791) – Victory Day ([Croatia](11521))
- [August 6](9951) – Independence Day ([Bolivia](9289))
- [August 6](9951) – Independence Day ([Jamaica](11218))
- [August 7](9956) – Independence Day ([Ivory Coast](4831))
- [August 8](9104) – Father's Day ([Taiwan](833))
- [August 9](9957) – National Day of [Singapore](5909)
- [August 9](9957) – Day of the Indigenous People ([Suriname](16545))
- [August 9](9957) – National Women's Day ([South Africa](3528))
- [August 10](9976) – Independence Day ([Ecuador](11243))
- [August 10](9976) – [Missouri](13536) Day
- [August 11](9975) – Independence Day ([Chad](11542))
- [August 12](9267) – Perseid [Meteor](8093) Shower
- [August 12](9267) – Queen Sirikit's Birthday ([Thailand](10138))
- [August 13](9974) – Independence Day ([Central African Republic](12334))
- [August 14](9973) – Independence Day ([Pakistan](5071))
- [August 15](9972) – [Assumption of Mary](1122507) in Western [Christianity](219595)
- [August 15](9972) – Independence Day ([India](391))
- [August 15](9972) – Independence Day ([Republic of the Congo](19598))
- [August 15](9972) – Independence Day ([Bahrain](12658))
- [August 15](9972) – National Day of [South Korea](5073)
- [August 15](9972) – National Day of [Liechtenstein](3465)
- [August 15](9972) – [Victory](131154) in [Japan](403) Day
- [August 17](9971) – Independence Day ([Indonesia](3334))
- [August 17](9971) – Independence Day ([Gabon](19599))
- [August 19](9969) – World Humanitarian Day
- [August 19](9969) – Independence Day ([Afghanistan](52))
- [August 20](9968) – Feast day of Stephen I of [Hungary](3462)
- [August 20](9968) – Regaining of Independence ([Estonia](4096))
- [August 21](9960) – Admission Day ([Hawaii](332))
- [August 21](9960) – Ninoy Aquino Day ([Philippines](5103))
- [August 21](9960) – [Saint Helena](20545) Day
- [August 22](9977) – Start of [Ashenda](992711) ([Ethiopia](10484) and [Eritrea](15032))
- [August 23](9961) – National Heroes Day ([Philippines](5103))
- [August 24](9964) – Independence Day ([Ukraine](3464))
- [August 25](9965) – Independence Day ([Uruguay](10982))
- [August 26](9966) – Heroes' Day ([Namibia](8250))
- [August 27](9967) – Independence Day ([Moldova](18336))
- [August 28](9959) – Assumption of Mary (Eastern [Christianity](219595))
- [August 29](8390) – National Uprising Day ([Slovakia](3467))
- [August 30](9962) – Constitution Day ([Kazakhstan](11232))
- [August 30](9962) – Republic Day ([Tatarstan](102819))
- [August 30](9962) – Victory Day ([Turkey](2860))
- [August 31](9963) – Independence Day ([Kyrgyzstan](21874))
- [August 31](9963) – Independence Day ([Malaysia](7476))
- [August 31](9963) – Independence Day ([Trinidad and Tobago](17751))
### Moveable and Monthlong events
- [Edinburgh](4864) Festival, including the Military Tattoo at [Edinburgh Castle](42760), takes place through most of August and beginning of [September](684).
- UK Bank Holidays: First [Monday](4010) in [Scotland](3049), last Monday in [England](3047) and [Wales](3048)
- National Eisteddfod, cultural celebration in [Wales](3048): First week in August
- Children's Day in [Uruguay](10982): Second Sunday in August
- [Monday](4010) after [August 17](9971): Holiday in [Argentina](54), commemorating [José de San Martin](92939)
- Discovery Day in [Canada](219589): third [Monday](4010) in August
- Summer Olympics, often held in [July](402) and/or August
## Selection of Historical Events
- [August 1](9955) – [1291](22103): Traditional founding date of [Switzerland](2161).
- [August 1](9955) – [1914](10113): [World War I](219834) begins.
- [August 1](9955) – [1944](10261): [Anne Frank](6312) makes the last entry in her diary.
- [August 1](9955) – [1960](8426): Dahomey (now called [Benin](15644)) becomes independent.
- [August 2](9954) – [1990](8905): [Iraq](26175) invades [Kuwait](9181).
- [August 3](9953) – [1492](9455): [Christopher Columbus](4635) sets sail on his first voyage.
- [August 3](9953) – [1960](8426): [Niger](18023) becomes independent.
- [August 4](9952) – [1944](10261): [Anne Frank](6312) and her family are captured by the [Gestapo](51091) in [Amsterdam](11417).
- [August 4](9952) – [1984](9264): [Upper Volta](251827)'s name is changed to [Burkina Faso](19175).
- [August 5](9791) – [1960](8426): [Upper Volta](251827) becomes independent.
- [August 5](9791) – [1962](8737): Film actress [Marilyn Monroe](44131) is found dead at her home.
- [August 6](9951) – [1825](20979): [Bolivia](9289)n independence.
- [August 6](9951) – [1945](4629): The Atomic Bomb is dropped on [Hiroshima](3537).
- [August 6](9951) – [1962](8737): [Jamaica](11218) becomes independent.
- [August 7](9956) – [1960](8426): [Ivory Coast](4831) becomes independent.
- [August 9](9957) – [1945](4629): The Atomic Bomb is dropped on [Nagasaki](19568).
- [August 9](9957) – [1965](2983): [Singapore](5909) becomes independent.
- [August 9](9957) – [1974](2971): US President [Richard Nixon](6027) resigns following the [Watergate scandal](8937), with [Gerald Ford](6028) replacing him.
- [August 10](9976) – [1792](11200): Storming of the Tuileries Palace during the [French Revolution](21250)
- [August 10](9976) – [1809](8338): Beginning of [Ecuador](11243)ean independence movement.
- [August 11](9975) – [1960](8426): [Chad](11542) becomes independent.
- [August 13](9974) – [1960](8426): The [Central African Republic](12334) becomes independent.
- [August 13](9974) – [1961](8336): Building of the [Berlin Wall](22117) begins.
- [August 14](9973) – [1945](4629): [Japan](403) announces its surrender at the end of [World War II](219837).
- [August 14](9973)/[15](9972) – [1947](8355): [India](391) is partitioned at independence from the UK, as the new mainly [Islam](219592)ic state of [Pakistan](5071) is created.
- [August 15](9972) – [1960](8426): The [Republic of the Congo](19598) becomes independent.
- [August 15](9972) – [1971](9117): [Bahrain](12658) becomes independent.
- [August 16](5151) – [1977](8721): [Elvis Presley](7443) dies aged 42, leading to a worldwide outpouring of grief.
- [August 17](9971) – [1945](4629): [Indonesia](3334) declares independence from the [Netherlands](3463).
- [August 17](9971) – [1960](8426): [Gabon](19599) becomes independent.
- [August 17](9971) – [1962](8737): Peter Fechter becomes the first person to be shot dead at the [Berlin Wall](22117).
- [August 19](9969) – [43 BC](449334): [Augustus](15583) becomes [Roman consul](272368).
- [August 19](9969) – [14](30972): [Augustus](15583) dies.
- [August 19](9969) – [1919](10181): [Afghanistan](52) becomes independent.
- [August 19](9969) – [1991](3963): The August Coup against [Mikhail Gorbachev](7583), in the [Soviet Union](3600), begins.
- [August 20](9968) – [1940](9212): [Leon Trotsky](6145) is fatally wounded with an ice pick in [Mexico](1935).
- [August 20](9968) – [1968](8340): The [Prague](8607) Spring uprising is crushed.
- [August 20](9968) – [1991](3963): [Estonia](4096) regains its independence from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [August 21](9960) – [1959](9558): [Hawaii](332) becomes the 50th State of the [US](720016).
- [August 24](9964) – [79](68200): Vesuvius erupts, destroying [Pompeii](87012) and neighbouring [Herculaneum](287928).
- [August 24](9964) – [1991](3963): [Ukraine](3464) regains independence from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [August 24](9964) – [2006](3965): [Pluto](241636) is demoted to a [dwarf planet](34462).
- [August 25](9965) – [1825](20979): [Uruguay](10982) declares independence from [Brazil](104).
- [August 25](9965) – [1989](3967): [Voyager 2](67147) flies by the planet [Neptune](558).
- [August 27](9967) – [1883](15050): [Krakatoa](21629), in the Sunda Strait between [Sumatra](55351) and [Java](4649), explodes, after a very violent eruption.
- [August 27](9967) – [1991](3963): [Moldova](18336) becomes independent from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [August 28](9959) – [1963](8718): The [March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom](113486) takes place, where Martin Luther King, Jr. makes his "I Have a Dream" speech for Civil Rights in the [United States](219587).
- [August 29](8390) – [2005](3964): [Hurricane Katrina](14402) wreaks devastation in [Alabama](9287), [Mississippi](11131) and [Louisiana](6207). [New Orleans](14199) is flooded.
- [August 31](9963) – [1957](9559): [Malaysia](7476), then the [Federation of Malaya](7476), becomes independent.
- [August 31](9963) – [1962](8737): [Trinidad and Tobago](17751) becomes independent.
- [August 31](9963) – [1991](3963): [Kyrgyzstan](21874) becomes independent.
- [August 31](9963) – [1997](3957): [Diana, Princess of Wales](65358) is killed in a car crash in [Paris](4467), leading to a big outpouring of grief.
## Trivia
- Along with [July](402), August is one of two calendar months to be named after people who really lived (July was named for [Julius Caesar](5940) and August was named for [Augustus](15583)).
- Only one [US President](7174) has died in August, [Warren G. Harding](15786), on [August 2](9954), [1923](9217).
- August's flower is the [Gladiolus](138894) with the birthstone being [peridot](66103).
- The astrological signs for August are Leo ([July 22](10043) - [August 21](9960)) and Virgo ([August 22](9977) - [September 21](10058)).
- August is the second of two months beginning with 'A', the other being April, with both April 21 and August 21 falling either side of the Northern summer solstice.
|
**August** (Aug.) is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between July and September. It has 31 days. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar.
August does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August always ends on the same day of the week as November.
## The Month
This month was first called _Sextilis_ in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the old Roman calendar. The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with Romulus. October was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC January 1 was determined as the beginning of the year.
August is named for Augustus Caesar who became Roman consul in this month. The month has 31 days because Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 45 BC. August is after July and before September.
August, in either hemisphere, is the seasonal equivalent of February in the other. In the Northern hemisphere it is a summer month and it is a winter month in the Southern hemisphere.
No other month in common years begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August ends on the same day of the week as November every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In common years, August starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the previous year, and in leap years, June of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, August starts on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, October of the following year. In years immediately before common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year.
### Fixed observances and events
- August 1 – National Day of Switzerland
- August 1 – Independence Day (Benin)
- August 1 – Emancipation Day (Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago)
- August 1 – Army Day (People's Republic of China)
- August 1 – Lammas, cross-quarter day in the Celtic calendar
- August 1 – Statehood Day (Colorado)
- August 2 – Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia)
- August 2 – Emancipation Day (Bahamas)
- August 3 – Independence Day (Niger)
- August 5 – Independence Day (Burkina Faso)
- August 5 – Victory Day (Croatia)
- August 6 – Independence Day (Bolivia)
- August 6 – Independence Day (Jamaica)
- August 7 – Independence Day (Ivory Coast)
- August 8 – Father's Day (Taiwan)
- August 9 – National Day of Singapore
- August 9 – Day of the Indigenous People (Suriname)
- August 9 – National Women's Day (South Africa)
- August 10 – Independence Day (Ecuador)
- August 10 – Missouri Day
- August 11 – Independence Day (Chad)
- August 12 – Perseid Meteor Shower
- August 12 – Queen Sirikit's Birthday (Thailand)
- August 13 – Independence Day (Central African Republic)
- August 14 – Independence Day (Pakistan)
- August 15 – Assumption of Mary in Western Christianity
- August 15 – Independence Day (India)
- August 15 – Independence Day (Republic of the Congo)
- August 15 – Independence Day (Bahrain)
- August 15 – National Day of South Korea
- August 15 – National Day of Liechtenstein
- August 15 – Victory in Japan Day
- August 17 – Independence Day (Indonesia)
- August 17 – Independence Day (Gabon)
- August 19 – World Humanitarian Day
- August 19 – Independence Day (Afghanistan)
- August 20 – Feast day of Stephen I of Hungary
- August 20 – Regaining of Independence (Estonia)
- August 21 – Admission Day (Hawaii)
- August 21 – Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)
- August 21 – Saint Helena Day
- August 22 – Start of Ashenda (Ethiopia and Eritrea)
- August 23 – National Heroes Day (Philippines)
- August 24 – Independence Day (Ukraine)
- August 25 – Independence Day (Uruguay)
- August 26 – Heroes' Day (Namibia)
- August 27 – Independence Day (Moldova)
- August 28 – Assumption of Mary (Eastern Christianity)
- August 29 – National Uprising Day (Slovakia)
- August 30 – Constitution Day (Kazakhstan)
- August 30 – Republic Day (Tatarstan)
- August 30 – Victory Day (Turkey)
- August 31 – Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan)
- August 31 – Independence Day (Malaysia)
- August 31 – Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago)
### Moveable and Monthlong events
- Edinburgh Festival, including the Military Tattoo at Edinburgh Castle, takes place through most of August and beginning of September.
- UK Bank Holidays: First Monday in Scotland, last Monday in England and Wales
- National Eisteddfod, cultural celebration in Wales: First week in August
- Children's Day in Uruguay: Second Sunday in August
- Monday after August 17: Holiday in Argentina, commemorating José de San Martin
- Discovery Day in Canada: third Monday in August
- Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or August
## Selection of Historical Events
- August 1 – 1291: Traditional founding date of Switzerland.
- August 1 – 1914: World War I begins.
- August 1 – 1944: Anne Frank makes the last entry in her diary.
- August 1 – 1960: Dahomey (now called Benin) becomes independent.
- August 2 – 1990: Iraq invades Kuwait.
- August 3 – 1492: Christopher Columbus sets sail on his first voyage.
- August 3 – 1960: Niger becomes independent.
- August 4 – 1944: Anne Frank and her family are captured by the Gestapo in Amsterdam.
- August 4 – 1984: Upper Volta's name is changed to Burkina Faso.
- August 5 – 1960: Upper Volta becomes independent.
- August 5 – 1962: Film actress Marilyn Monroe is found dead at her home.
- August 6 – 1825: Bolivian independence.
- August 6 – 1945: The Atomic Bomb is dropped on Hiroshima.
- August 6 – 1962: Jamaica becomes independent.
- August 7 – 1960: Ivory Coast becomes independent.
- August 9 – 1945: The Atomic Bomb is dropped on Nagasaki.
- August 9 – 1965: Singapore becomes independent.
- August 9 – 1974: US President Richard Nixon resigns following the Watergate scandal, with Gerald Ford replacing him.
- August 10 – 1792: Storming of the Tuileries Palace during the French Revolution
- August 10 – 1809: Beginning of Ecuadorean independence movement.
- August 11 – 1960: Chad becomes independent.
- August 13 – 1960: The Central African Republic becomes independent.
- August 13 – 1961: Building of the Berlin Wall begins.
- August 14 – 1945: Japan announces its surrender at the end of World War II.
- August 14/15 – 1947: India is partitioned at independence from the UK, as the new mainly Islamic state of Pakistan is created.
- August 15 – 1960: The Republic of the Congo becomes independent.
- August 15 – 1971: Bahrain becomes independent.
- August 16 – 1977: Elvis Presley dies aged 42, leading to a worldwide outpouring of grief.
- August 17 – 1945: Indonesia declares independence from the Netherlands.
- August 17 – 1960: Gabon becomes independent.
- August 17 – 1962: Peter Fechter becomes the first person to be shot dead at the Berlin Wall.
- August 19 – 43 BC: Augustus becomes Roman consul.
- August 19 – 14: Augustus dies.
- August 19 – 1919: Afghanistan becomes independent.
- August 19 – 1991: The August Coup against Mikhail Gorbachev, in the Soviet Union, begins.
- August 20 – 1940: Leon Trotsky is fatally wounded with an ice pick in Mexico.
- August 20 – 1968: The Prague Spring uprising is crushed.
- August 20 – 1991: Estonia regains its independence from the Soviet Union.
- August 21 – 1959: Hawaii becomes the 50th State of the US.
- August 24 – 79: Vesuvius erupts, destroying Pompeii and neighbouring Herculaneum.
- August 24 – 1991: Ukraine regains independence from the Soviet Union.
- August 24 – 2006: Pluto is demoted to a dwarf planet.
- August 25 – 1825: Uruguay declares independence from Brazil.
- August 25 – 1989: Voyager 2 flies by the planet Neptune.
- August 27 – 1883: Krakatoa, in the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java, explodes, after a very violent eruption.
- August 27 – 1991: Moldova becomes independent from the Soviet Union.
- August 28 – 1963: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom takes place, where Martin Luther King, Jr. makes his "I Have a Dream" speech for Civil Rights in the United States.
- August 29 – 2005: Hurricane Katrina wreaks devastation in Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. New Orleans is flooded.
- August 31 – 1957: Malaysia, then the Federation of Malaya, becomes independent.
- August 31 – 1962: Trinidad and Tobago becomes independent.
- August 31 – 1991: Kyrgyzstan becomes independent.
- August 31 – 1997: Diana, Princess of Wales is killed in a car crash in Paris, leading to a big outpouring of grief.
## Trivia
- Along with July, August is one of two calendar months to be named after people who really lived (July was named for Julius Caesar and August was named for Augustus).
- Only one US President has died in August, Warren G. Harding, on August 2, 1923.
- August's flower is the Gladiolus with the birthstone being peridot.
- The astrological signs for August are Leo (July 22 - August 21) and Virgo (August 22 - September 21).
- August is the second of two months beginning with 'A', the other being April, with both April 21 and August 21 falling either side of the Northern summer solstice.
|
high
| false
| false
|
6
|
Art
|
**Art** is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. **Art** is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a **work of art**, for others to experience.
Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay [bowl](21815) that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a _[craft](4669)_.
Those who make art are called [artist](17867)s. They hope to affect the [emotion](20124)s of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner [creativity](134).
"The arts" is a much broader term. It includes [drawing](5316), [painting](11274), sculpting, [photography](5007), [performance art](255689), [dance](187), [music](472), [poetry](3886), [prose](78105) and [theatre](819).
## Types of art
Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the [performing arts](255689), where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.
- Plastic art
- Fine art is expression by making something [beautiful](13173) or appealing to the [emotion](20124)s by visual means: [drawing](5316), [painting](11274), [printmaking](126511), [sculpture](25295)
- Literature: [poetry](3886), creative [writing](3681)
- Performing art
- Performing arts are expression using the body: [drama](45403), [dance](187), acting, [singing](51746)
- Auditory art (expression by making [sound](686)s): [music](472), [singing](51746)
- Practical art
- Culinary art (expression by making [flavor](3940)s and [taste](13407)s): [cooking](146)
- The practical arts (expression by making things and structures: [architecture](49), [filming](3486), [fashion](54315), [photography](5007), video games)
## What "art" means
Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the [human mind](8568), [spirit](753) and [soul](805). Art can also be an Idea or a concept that is expressed visually. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.
The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors or forms next to each other to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting look. Art can also be an existing object that is presented and called art, this is called re contextualizing. This is often done by placing the object in a frame or a special setting like a Gallery were the new setting gives the object a different meaning or message. (Marcel Duchamp, _Fountain,_ 1917)
The difference between Art and design can be subjective to the viewer and hard to distinguish. Art is often said to have a message or a meaning and design is about only the appearance.
Art may express [emotion](20124). Artists may feel a certain emotion or message and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them. Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an [audience](30451). However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion or the message as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.
## History of art
There are sculptures, [cave painting](98037) and [rock art](70047) dating from the [Upper Paleolithic](302580) era.
All of the great ancient civilizations, such as [Ancient Egypt](15034), India, [China](29263), [Greece](13444), [Rome](24298) and Persia had works and styles of art. In the [Middle Ages](6593), most of the art in [Europe](216) showed people from the [Bible](2866) in [painting](11274)s, [stained-glass](278733) windows, and [mosaic](99830) tile floors and walls.
Islamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic [calligraphy](186989), and [architecture](49). In [India](391) and [Tibet](35288), painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included [jade](6623) carving, bronze, [pottery](11616), [poetry](3886), calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.
In Europe, after the [Middle Ages](6593), there was a "[Renaissance](25297)" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered [science](700) and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like [Michelangelo](4653) and [Leonardo da Vinci](4654) still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented [perspective](96375) where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used [nudity](9596) regularly in their art.
In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as [Classicism](181432), [Romanticism](29089), [Realism](72086), and [Impressionism](92432). The history of twentieth century art includes [Expressionism](80576), [Fauvism](268704), [Cubism](59225), Dadaism, [Surrealism](67444), and [Minimalism](30136).
## Roles of art
In some [societies](689), people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "[talent](50141)" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the [property](3336) of the artist, protected by [copyright](1586).
In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its [social capital](726) into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.
### Functions of art
The functions of art include:
1) Cognitive function
- Works of art let us know about what the creator thought or knew, and what the surroundings of the author were like, real or imagined.
2) Aesthetic function
- Works of art can make people happy by being beautiful or evoke any of the emotions.
3) Prognostic function
- Some artists draw what they see the future like, and some of them are right, but most are not...
4) Recreation function
- Art makes us think about it, not about reality; we have a rest.
5) Value function
- What did the artist value? What aims did they like/dislike in human activity? This usually is clearly seen in artists' works.
6) Didactic function
- What message, criticism or political change did the artist wish to achieve?
## Related pages
- [Art history](226452)
- [Conservation (art)](350859)
- [Modern art](268587)
- [Abstract art](268878)
- [Magnum opus](831048)
- [Painting](11274)
- [Sculpture](25295)
- [Street art](277865)
|
**Art** is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. **Art** is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a **work of art**, for others to experience.
Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a _craft_.
Those who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity.
"The arts" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre.
## Types of art
Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.
- Plastic art
- Fine art is expression by making something beautiful or appealing to the emotions by visual means: drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture
- Literature: poetry, creative writing
- Performing art
- Performing arts are expression using the body: drama, dance, acting, singing
- Auditory art (expression by making sounds): music, singing
- Practical art
- Culinary art (expression by making flavors and tastes): cooking
- The practical arts (expression by making things and structures: architecture, filming, fashion, photography, video games)
## What "art" means
Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul. Art can also be an Idea or a concept that is expressed visually. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.
The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors or forms next to each other to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting look. Art can also be an existing object that is presented and called art, this is called re contextualizing. This is often done by placing the object in a frame or a special setting like a Gallery were the new setting gives the object a different meaning or message. (Marcel Duchamp, _Fountain,_ 1917)
The difference between Art and design can be subjective to the viewer and hard to distinguish. Art is often said to have a message or a meaning and design is about only the appearance.
Art may express emotion. Artists may feel a certain emotion or message and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them. Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience. However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion or the message as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.
## History of art
There are sculptures, cave painting and rock art dating from the Upper Paleolithic era.
All of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained-glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls.
Islamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.
In Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a "Renaissance" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art.
In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism.
## Roles of art
In some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "talent" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright.
In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.
### Functions of art
The functions of art include:
1) Cognitive function
- Works of art let us know about what the creator thought or knew, and what the surroundings of the author were like, real or imagined.
2) Aesthetic function
- Works of art can make people happy by being beautiful or evoke any of the emotions.
3) Prognostic function
- Some artists draw what they see the future like, and some of them are right, but most are not...
4) Recreation function
- Art makes us think about it, not about reality; we have a rest.
5) Value function
- What did the artist value? What aims did they like/dislike in human activity? This usually is clearly seen in artists' works.
6) Didactic function
- What message, criticism or political change did the artist wish to achieve?
## Related pages
- Art history
- Conservation (art)
- Modern art
- Abstract art
- Magnum opus
- Painting
- Sculpture
- Street art
|
medium
| false
| false
|
8
|
A
|
**A** is the first letter of the [English](2843) [alphabet](5892). The small letter, **a**, is used as a lowercase [vowel](32620).
## Overview
When it is spoken, ā is said as a long **a**, a [diphthong](12485) of ĕ and y. A is similar to [Alpha](88806) of the [Greek alphabet](18065). That is not surprising, because it means the same sound. "Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In [musical notation](87186), the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below [B](5719) and above [G](5724).
A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, [The A-Team](31398). A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing. A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La".
## Origin
The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's [aleph](140725). This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head.
This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the [Etruscans](47163) in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.
## Using the letter
The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like æ, in the [International Phonetic Alphabet](52427), such as the word _pad_. Other sounds of this letter are in the words _father_, which developed into another sound, such as in the word _ace_.
## Use in mathematics
In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.
In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label [line segment](454670)s, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.
Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th [postulate](37232), the basis for, as one of the [Millennium Prize Problems](613952), the [Hodge Conjecture](918756).
|
**A** is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, **a**, is used as a lowercase vowel.
## Overview
When it is spoken, ā is said as a long **a**, a diphthong of ĕ and y. A is similar to Alpha of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means the same sound. "Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G.
A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing. A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La".
## Origin
The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head.
This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.
## Using the letter
The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like æ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word _pad_. Other sounds of this letter are in the words _father_, which developed into another sound, such as in the word _ace_.
## Use in mathematics
In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.
In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.
Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture.
|
high
| false
| false
|
9
|
Air
|
**Air** is the [Earth](219)'s [atmosphere](350724). Air is a [mixture](3257) of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear [gas](3283) in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and [volume](895). It has [mass](513) and [weight](7956), because it is [matter](50759). The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in [outer space](2899).
Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases.
Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In [breathing](14474), the [lung](18820)s put oxygen into the [blood](2950), and send back [carbon dioxide](11599) to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it animals die of [asphyxia](69502).
Air can be [polluted](226886) by some gases (such as [carbon monoxide](56839), hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), [smoke](47878), and ash. This [air pollution](226886) causes various problems including [smog](86825), [acid rain](20769) and [global warming](7368). It can damage people's [health](325) and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up too much, causing it to become too hot and not support life. Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing more and more.
Since early times, air has been used to create [technology](15232). Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use [propeller](45647)s to move air over a [wing](16634), which allows them to [fly](26685). [Pneumatics](76848) use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.
Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.
Air is one of the 4 classical elements (water, air, earth and fire).
### Original atmosphere
At first it was mainly a [hydrogen](355) atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the [Great Oxygenation Event](362249) 2.4 [billion](467299) years ago, greatly increased [oxygen](2949) in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since [industrialisation](90024), leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.
### Second atmosphere
Out gassing from [volcanism](1972), supplemented by gases produced during the [late heavy bombardment](242278) of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of [nitrogen](2061) plus [carbon dioxide](11599) and [inert gas](68366)es.
### Third atmosphere
The constant re-arrangement of continents by [plate tectonics](60789) influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The [Great Oxygenation Event](362249) is shown by the end of the [banded iron formation](301332)s.
## Related pages
- [Air pollution](226886)
- [Air craft](4701)
|
**Air** is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space.
Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases.
Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it animals die of asphyxia.
Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up too much, causing it to become too hot and not support life. Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing more and more.
Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.
Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.
Air is one of the 4 classical elements (water, air, earth and fire).
### Original atmosphere
At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.
### Second atmosphere
Out gassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.
### Third atmosphere
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations.
## Related pages
- Air pollution
- Air craft
|
high
| false
| false
|
12
|
Autonomous communities of Spain
|
[Spain](219832) is divided in 17 parts called **autonomous communities**. _Autonomous_ means that each of these autonomous communities has its own [executive](100530), legislative, and judicial powers. These are similar to, but _not_ the same as, states in the [United States](219587) of America, for example.
Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities.
Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": [Catalonia](7426), [Basque Country](688255), Galicia and [Andalusia](20278).
The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:
- [Catalonia](7426): [Catalan](2035) and [Occitan](33454)
- Valencian Community: [Catalan](2035) (also called [Valencian](78411) there)
- [Balearic Islands](20283): [Catalan](2035)
- Galicia: [Galician](13700)
- [Basque Country](688255): [Basque](19373)
- [Navarre](289736): [Basque](19373) (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County)
List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):
- [Andalusia](20278) (its capital is Sevilla)
- [Aragon](25359) (its capital is [Zaragoza](20185))
- [Asturias](234100) (its capital is [Oviedo](36603))
- [Balearic Islands](20283) (its capital is [Palma de Mallorca](20189))
- [Basque Country](688255) (its capital is Vitoria)
- [Canary Islands](19765) (they have two capitals - [Las Palmas de Gran Canaria](20187) and [Santa Cruz de Tenerife](20542))
- [Cantabria](35049) (its capital is [Santander](473852))
- Castile-La Mancha (its capital is [Toledo](11582))
- [Castile and León](234102) (its capital is [Valladolid](5185))
- [Catalonia](7426) (its capital is [Barcelona](5259))
- [Extremadura](386616) (its capital is [Mérida](20281))
- Galicia (its capital is [Santiago de Compostela](142349))
- [La Rioja](386582) (its capital is [Logroño](122987))
- [Community of Madrid](74854) (its capital is [Madrid](473))
- [Region of Murcia](20196) (its capital is [Murcia](20184))
- [Navarre](289736) (its capital is [Pamplona](397465))
- Valencian Community (its capital is [Valencia](20182))
Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: [Ceuta](19171) and [Melilla](19169). They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities.
|
Spain is divided in 17 parts called **autonomous communities**. _Autonomous_ means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative, and judicial powers. These are similar to, but _not_ the same as, states in the United States of America, for example.
Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities.
Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia.
The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:
- Catalonia: Catalan and Occitan
- Valencian Community: Catalan (also called Valencian there)
- Balearic Islands: Catalan
- Galicia: Galician
- Basque Country: Basque
- Navarre: Basque (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County)
List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):
- Andalusia (its capital is Sevilla)
- Aragon (its capital is Zaragoza)
- Asturias (its capital is Oviedo)
- Balearic Islands (its capital is Palma de Mallorca)
- Basque Country (its capital is Vitoria)
- Canary Islands (they have two capitals - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife)
- Cantabria (its capital is Santander)
- Castile-La Mancha (its capital is Toledo)
- Castile and León (its capital is Valladolid)
- Catalonia (its capital is Barcelona)
- Extremadura (its capital is Mérida)
- Galicia (its capital is Santiago de Compostela)
- La Rioja (its capital is Logroño)
- Community of Madrid (its capital is Madrid)
- Region of Murcia (its capital is Murcia)
- Navarre (its capital is Pamplona)
- Valencian Community (its capital is Valencia)
Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
13
|
Alan Turing
|
**Alan Mathison Turing** ([London](460), 23 June 1912 – [Wilmslow](753470), [Cheshire](19225), 7 June 1954) was an [English](17307) [mathematician](14844) and computer scientist. He is known as the father of [computer science](110). He was born in [Maida Vale](179337), London.
## Early life
Turing was born in Maida Vale, London. His father came from a Scottish merchant family. His mother, Ethel Sara Stoney, was the daughter of an [engineer](22953) from [Ireland](361). Turing was very good at math when he was young.
## Education
He went to school at St. Michael’s in St Leonards-on-Sea. Later, he studied at [Cambridge University](121093) and [Princeton University](54786).
## Career
In 1936, Turing wrote about a theoretical machine called the [Turing machine](29010). This idea became important in the development of computers. He also created the idea of a [computer program](2957).
During [World War II](219837), Turing worked at [Bletchley Park](348276). He helped break secret German messages made by the Enigma machine. This helped the [Allies](26091) win the war and may have saved millions of lives.
He worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), using [cryptanalysis](105014) to break Nazi codes. Later, he helped design the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), one of the first stored-program computers. He presented the design in 1946.
Turing was also interested in [artificial intelligence](6360). He proposed the [Turing test](4076) to check if a machine can "think".
## Private life
Turing was homosexual. In [1952](6752), he admitted to having sex with a man. At that time, being gay was illegal in the UK. He was [convicted](127063) and had to choose between [prison](1934) or taking hormones to reduce his sex drive. He chose the [medicine](3793). This caused him health problems like impotence and breast growth.
## Death
In 1954, Turing died from [cyanide](38415) poisoning. Some say he ate a poisoned [apple](39), but the apple was never tested. It is believed he died by suicide.
## Legacy
In 2009, a [petition](178248) asked the UK Government to say sorry for how Turing was treated. Prime Minister [Gordon Brown](31741) later gave an apology and called Turing's treatment "appalling".
In 2013, Queen [Elizabeth II](3447) gave him a royal pardon.
The “Turing Law” was later passed to pardon other men who were punished under old anti-gay laws.
## Other websites
- Jack Copeland 2012. Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'. BBC News / Technology [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18419691](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18419691)
|
**Alan Mathison Turing** (London, 23 June 1912 – Wilmslow, Cheshire, 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician and computer scientist. He is known as the father of computer science. He was born in Maida Vale, London.
## Early life
Turing was born in Maida Vale, London. His father came from a Scottish merchant family. His mother, Ethel Sara Stoney, was the daughter of an engineer from Ireland. Turing was very good at math when he was young.
## Education
He went to school at St. Michael’s in St Leonards-on-Sea. Later, he studied at Cambridge University and Princeton University.
## Career
In 1936, Turing wrote about a theoretical machine called the Turing machine. This idea became important in the development of computers. He also created the idea of a computer program.
During World War II, Turing worked at Bletchley Park. He helped break secret German messages made by the Enigma machine. This helped the Allies win the war and may have saved millions of lives.
He worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), using cryptanalysis to break Nazi codes. Later, he helped design the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), one of the first stored-program computers. He presented the design in 1946.
Turing was also interested in artificial intelligence. He proposed the Turing test to check if a machine can "think".
## Private life
Turing was homosexual. In 1952, he admitted to having sex with a man. At that time, being gay was illegal in the UK. He was convicted and had to choose between prison or taking hormones to reduce his sex drive. He chose the medicine. This caused him health problems like impotence and breast growth.
## Death
In 1954, Turing died from cyanide poisoning. Some say he ate a poisoned apple, but the apple was never tested. It is believed he died by suicide.
## Legacy
In 2009, a petition asked the UK Government to say sorry for how Turing was treated. Prime Minister Gordon Brown later gave an apology and called Turing's treatment "appalling".
In 2013, Queen Elizabeth II gave him a royal pardon.
The “Turing Law” was later passed to pardon other men who were punished under old anti-gay laws.
## Other websites
- Jack Copeland 2012. Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'. BBC News / Technology https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18419691
|
medium
| false
| false
|
14
|
Alanis Morissette
|
**Alanis Nadine Morissette** (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning [Canadian](444053)-[American](27105) [singer](15324) and [songwriter](31817). She was born in [Ottawa](3838), [Canada](219589). She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world.
As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on [television](1999), including 5 [episode](541057)s of the long-running series, _[You Can't Do That on Television](62015)_. Her first [album](18202) was released only in Canada in 1990.
Her first international album was _[Jagged Little Pill](306073)_, released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. _Jagged_ has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, _Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie_, was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include _Under Rug Swept_, _So-Called Chaos_ and _[Flavors of Entanglement](139150)_. Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide.
She also acted in several movies, including [Kevin Smith](55693)'s _Dogma_, where she played [God](305).
## About her life
Alanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from [Hungary](3462). She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a [military](3516) base in [Lahr](981045), [Germany](219828).
Morissette became an [American](219587) citizen in 2005. She is still a Canadian citizen.
On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario "MC Souleye" Treadway.
## Jagged Little Pill
Morissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album _Jagged Little Pill_ became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. Many reviewers had positive things to say.
On the album, Morissette sang [song](9460)s about many different things. These things include:
- [love](9586) (in the song "Head Over Feet")
- [life](425) (in the songs "Ironic" and "You Learn")
- her [feelings](20124) (in the songs "Hand In My Pocket" and "All I Really Want")
- sadness (in the song "Mary Jane")
- [anger](21084) (in the song "You Oughta Know")
- frustration (in the songs "Not the Doctor" and "Wake Up")
### Albums
- _Alanis_ (Canada-only, 1991)
- _Now Is the Time_ (Canada-only, 1992)
- _[Jagged Little Pill](306073)_ (1995)
- _Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie_ (1998)
- _Alanis Unplugged_ (1999)
- _Under Rug Swept_ (2002)
- _Feast on Scraps_ (CD/DVD, 2002)
- _So-Called Chaos_ (2004)
- _Jagged Little Pill Acoustic_ (2005)
- _[Alanis Morissette: The Collection](127810)_ (2005)
- _[Flavors of Entanglement](139150)_ (2008)
- _Havoc and Bright Lights_ (2012)
### Selected songs
Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are:
- "You Oughta Know" - This song is to Morissette's ex-boyfriend, a man she once loved. In this song, Morissette is very angry. She wants her ex-boyfriend to know that he caused many problems after leaving her for another woman.
- "[Ironic](258103)" - This song is about life. It contains several stories about unlucky people. In one of the stories, a man is afraid of flying on [airplane](78545)s. He finally flies in one, but the airplane crashes.
- "You Learn" - In this song, Morissette says that bad things happen in life, but people learn from them. Anyone can make bad things into good things. She wants people to try new things in life.
- "Uninvited" - In this song, Morissette is not happy because she is famous. She does not know whether she wants to continue to be famous or not.
- "Thank U" - In this song, she thanks many things that have helped her. She thanks [India](391), a country she visited and almost died in. She also lists ways she can improve herself.
- "Hands Clean" - In this song, a man does something bad, and tells Morissette not to tell anyone else the bad thing the man did. She hides the man's secret for many years.
## Infobox (musical artist)
- **name**: Alanis Morissette
- **img**: Alaniss.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Alanis Nadine Morissette
- **origin**: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, Pop music, Dance-pop, Alternative rock, Alternative
- **occupation**: Singer, songwriter, actress, record producer
- **years active**: 1987–present
- **url**: [http://www.alanis.com/ www.alanis.com]
|
**Alanis Nadine Morissette** (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning Canadian-American singer and songwriter. She was born in Ottawa, Canada. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world.
As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on television, including 5 episodes of the long-running series, _You Can't Do That on Television_. Her first album was released only in Canada in 1990.
Her first international album was _Jagged Little Pill_, released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. _Jagged_ has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, _Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie_, was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include _Under Rug Swept_, _So-Called Chaos_ and _Flavors of Entanglement_. Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide.
She also acted in several movies, including Kevin Smith's _Dogma_, where she played God.
## About her life
Alanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from Hungary. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a military base in Lahr, Germany.
Morissette became an American citizen in 2005. She is still a Canadian citizen.
On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario "MC Souleye" Treadway.
## Jagged Little Pill
Morissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album _Jagged Little Pill_ became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. Many reviewers had positive things to say.
On the album, Morissette sang songs about many different things. These things include:
- love (in the song "Head Over Feet")
- life (in the songs "Ironic" and "You Learn")
- her feelings (in the songs "Hand In My Pocket" and "All I Really Want")
- sadness (in the song "Mary Jane")
- anger (in the song "You Oughta Know")
- frustration (in the songs "Not the Doctor" and "Wake Up")
### Albums
- _Alanis_ (Canada-only, 1991)
- _Now Is the Time_ (Canada-only, 1992)
- _Jagged Little Pill_ (1995)
- _Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie_ (1998)
- _Alanis Unplugged_ (1999)
- _Under Rug Swept_ (2002)
- _Feast on Scraps_ (CD/DVD, 2002)
- _So-Called Chaos_ (2004)
- _Jagged Little Pill Acoustic_ (2005)
- _Alanis Morissette: The Collection_ (2005)
- _Flavors of Entanglement_ (2008)
- _Havoc and Bright Lights_ (2012)
### Selected songs
Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are:
- "You Oughta Know" - This song is to Morissette's ex-boyfriend, a man she once loved. In this song, Morissette is very angry. She wants her ex-boyfriend to know that he caused many problems after leaving her for another woman.
- "Ironic" - This song is about life. It contains several stories about unlucky people. In one of the stories, a man is afraid of flying on airplanes. He finally flies in one, but the airplane crashes.
- "You Learn" - In this song, Morissette says that bad things happen in life, but people learn from them. Anyone can make bad things into good things. She wants people to try new things in life.
- "Uninvited" - In this song, Morissette is not happy because she is famous. She does not know whether she wants to continue to be famous or not.
- "Thank U" - In this song, she thanks many things that have helped her. She thanks India, a country she visited and almost died in. She also lists ways she can improve herself.
- "Hands Clean" - In this song, a man does something bad, and tells Morissette not to tell anyone else the bad thing the man did. She hides the man's secret for many years.
## Infobox (musical artist)
- **name**: Alanis Morissette
- **img**: Alaniss.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Alanis Nadine Morissette
- **origin**: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, Pop music, Dance-pop, Alternative rock, Alternative
- **occupation**: Singer, songwriter, actress, record producer
- **years active**: 1987–present
- **url**: [http://www.alanis.com/ www.alanis.com]
|
medium
| false
| false
|
17
|
Adobe Illustrator
|
***Adobe Illustrator*** is a computer program for making [graphic design](34185) and [illustration](178466)s. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in _Adobe Illustrator_ can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name.
## History
It was first released in 1986 for the [Apple Macintosh](517). The latest version is ***Adobe Illustrator 2024***, part of [Adobe Creative Cloud](1078611).
## Release history
|**Version**|**Platforms**|**Release date**|**[Code name](686277)**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.0|Mac OS|January 1987|[Picasso](16298)|
|1.1|Mac OS|19 March 1987|Inca|
|88|Mac OS|March 1988||
|2.0|Windows|January 1989|Pinnacle|
|3|Mac OS, [NeXT](765331), other Unices|October 1990|Desert [Moose](8199)|
|3.5|[Silicon Graphics](48828)|1991||
|4|[Windows](927)|May 1992|[Kangaroo](17365)se|
|3.5|Solaris|1993||
|5|Mac OS|June 1993|Saturn|
|5.5|Mac OS, Solaris|June 1994|[Janus](28352)|
|4.1|Windows|1995||
|6|Mac OS|February 1996|[Popeye](9233)|
|7|Mac/Windows|May 1997|Simba|
|8|Mac/Windows|September 1998|[Elvis](7443)|
|9|Mac/Windows|June 2000|Matisse|
|10|Mac/Windows|November 2001|Paloma|
|CS (11)|Mac/Windows|October 2003|[Pangaea](77640)/Sprinkles|
|CS2 (12, 12.0.1)|Mac/Windows|27 April 2005|[Zodiac](66540)|
|CS3 (13)|Mac/Windows|April 2007|[Jason](379658)|
|CS4 (14)|Mac/Windows|October 2008||
|CS5 (15)|Mac/Windows|April 2010||
|CS6 (16)|Mac/Windows|April 2012||
|CC (17-28.4.1/2013-2024)|Mac/Windows|May 2013||
## Infobox (software)
- **name**: Adobe Illustrator
- **logo**: Adobe Illustrator CC icon.svg
- **developer**: Adobe Systems
- **latest release version**: 28.4.1
- **operating system**: Microsoft Windows, macOS
- **genre**: Vector graphics editor
- **license**: Proprietary software, Proprietary
|
***Adobe Illustrator*** is a computer program for making graphic design and illustrations. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in _Adobe Illustrator_ can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name.
## History
It was first released in 1986 for the Apple Macintosh. The latest version is ***Adobe Illustrator 2024***, part of Adobe Creative Cloud.
## Release history
|**Version**|**Platforms**|**Release date**|**Code name**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.0|Mac OS|January 1987|Picasso|
|1.1|Mac OS|19 March 1987|Inca|
|88|Mac OS|March 1988||
|2.0|Windows|January 1989|Pinnacle|
|3|Mac OS, NeXT, other Unices|October 1990|Desert Moose|
|3.5|Silicon Graphics|1991||
|4|Windows|May 1992|Kangaroose|
|3.5|Solaris|1993||
|5|Mac OS|June 1993|Saturn|
|5.5|Mac OS, Solaris|June 1994|Janus|
|4.1|Windows|1995||
|6|Mac OS|February 1996|Popeye|
|7|Mac/Windows|May 1997|Simba|
|8|Mac/Windows|September 1998|Elvis|
|9|Mac/Windows|June 2000|Matisse|
|10|Mac/Windows|November 2001|Paloma|
|CS (11)|Mac/Windows|October 2003|Pangaea/Sprinkles|
|CS2 (12, 12.0.1)|Mac/Windows|27 April 2005|Zodiac|
|CS3 (13)|Mac/Windows|April 2007|Jason|
|CS4 (14)|Mac/Windows|October 2008||
|CS5 (15)|Mac/Windows|April 2010||
|CS6 (16)|Mac/Windows|April 2012||
|CC (17-28.4.1/2013-2024)|Mac/Windows|May 2013||
## Infobox (software)
- **name**: Adobe Illustrator
- **logo**: Adobe Illustrator CC icon.svg
- **developer**: Adobe Systems
- **latest release version**: 28.4.1
- **operating system**: Microsoft Windows, macOS
- **genre**: Vector graphics editor
- **license**: Proprietary software, Proprietary
|
medium
| false
| false
|
18
|
Andouille
|
**Andouille** is a type of [pork](7751) [sausage](710). It is spicy (hot in [taste](13407)) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork [meat](4646), [fat](19532), intestines (tubes going to the [stomach](13746)), and [tripe](178165) (the wall of the stomach).
Other sorts are "French andouille" and "German andouille"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, [black pepper](29185), and [garlic](41294). Andouille makers smoke the sausages over [pecan](168446) wood and sugar [cane](26429) for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius).
|
**Andouille** is a type of pork sausage. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork meat, fat, intestines (tubes going to the stomach), and tripe (the wall of the stomach).
Other sorts are "French andouille" and "German andouille"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, black pepper, and garlic. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius).
|
medium
| false
| false
|
19
|
Farming
|
Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for [food](280) and raw materials. Farming is a significant part of [agriculture](71284).
## History
Farming began in different parts of the world, independently; There were at least 11 separate centers of origin.
Rice was [domesticated](31600) in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC; Later came domestication of [mung](832034), soy and [azuki](45457) beans. Sheep were domesticated in [Mesopotamia](43746) between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. Cattle were domesticated from the wild [aurochs](102713) in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan c. 10,500 years ago.
The development of farming gave rise to the [Neolithic Revolution](102433) as people gave up [nomad](44323)ic [hunting](33836) and became [settler](364467)s in cities.
Farming and [domestication](31600) probably started in the [Fertile Crescent](54446) (the [Nile](18589) Valley, the [Levant](54449) and [Mesopotamia](43746)). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of [Iraq](26175), [Syria](6193), [Turkey](2860), [Jordan](14629), [Lebanon](7615), [Israel](64543), and [Egypt](248). [Wheat](14168) and [barley](11234) are some of the first crops people grew.
Cotton was [domesticated](31600) in Peru by 4200 BC.
Livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats were taken to the [Americas](227444), from the [Old World](41600). The first of those horses, came with the Spanish [conquistador](63615)s (or soldiers and explorers) in the 1490s. Moving those cattle, sheep, goats and horses, were part of the [Columbian Exchange](59588).
People probably started agriculture by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than [hunter-gatherer](101291)s can feed on the same amount of land.
This allowed the [human population to grow](285726) to such large numbers as there are today.
## Types
- Arable farming means growing crops. This would include [wheat](14168) or vegetables.
- Growing [fruit](293) means having [orchard](460929)s devoted to fruit. They cannot be switched easily with growing field crops. Therefore, they are not classed as arable land in the statistics.
Many people still live by [subsistence farming](9340), on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The [yield](5429) is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less [educated](2113), and they have less [money](479) to buy equipment. [Drought](23713) and other problems sometimes cause [famine](46018)s. Where yields are low, [deforestation](22751) can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more [nutrition](107489) for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding [environment](13637) over many years.
In some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better [varieties](324009) of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more.
This kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, [pesticide](33539)s (chemicals that kill bugs), and [herbicide](20839)s (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the [soil](7117) or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by [erosion](277882) (blowing or washing away), salt builddup, or loss of structure. [Irrigation](8538) (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education.
Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and [nutrition](107489)al value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and [drought](23713), and are easier to harvest. Centuries of [artificial selection](137607) and breeding have changed crop plants. The crops produce better yield. Fertilizers, chemical [pest control](392873), and [irrigation](8538) all help.
Some plants are improved with [genetic engineering](33730). One example is modifying the plant to resist herbicides.
### Livestock
Farms may also keep animals. That is called [animal husbandry](19450). If they are used to make meat for people to eat, that is [livestock](31976) production. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, are kept for their produce. "Produce" here means their eggs and milk, which are sold by the farm, usually in [market](4004)s. Large animals need grassland of some kind for grazing. What they need depends on the animals. [Goats](38207) eat a much wider range of plants than cows. In some parts of the world, that makes goats a more sensible choice for a farmer than cows.
## Food
It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture.
- Traditional agriculture is mostly done in poor countries.
- Intensive agriculture is mostly done in countries with more money. It uses pesticides, machinery, chemical fertilizers.
- Organic farming is using only natural products such as compost and green manure.
- Integrated farming is using local resources, and trying to use the waste from one process as a resource in another process.
Agricultural [policy](776139) means the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food.
## Problems
There are some serious problems that people face trying to grow [food](280) today.
These include:
- [Pollution](7638)
- [Erosion](277882)
- Diseases
- Pests
- [Weed](49029)s
- [Drought](23713)
- Rainfall
- [Climate](1970): Earth warming is an important example
- Contamination
There are also difficulties with the distribution of food:
- Warfare: see [Nigerian Civil War](973019) (Biafran War) for an example. See [Russia–Ukrainian war](897863) for another example.
- [Distribution](66389): Difficulties with moving product from grower to consumer. It is expected that this difficulty will increase in future. The reasons for this are complex, but one important factor may be the absence of a dominant international naval power. The British Navy provided protection against [pirates](206097) in the 19th and early 20th century, and the US Navy protected shipping after WWII. The US is still a dominant naval power, but its power will soon be based on its small number of huge aircraft carriers. They will not deal with small boats full of armed pirates, which is the usual way [piracy](206097) is done. So we can expect grain ships (etc) will have to carry any protection they may need, or they will have to go the long way around. That means avoiding the shortcuts into the [Mediterranean](7621). Other kinds of warfare, such as we see in [Ukraine](3464), add to the problem of shipping food products safely.
## Crops
In produced weight, these crops are the most important (global production in metric tonnes):
The figure for sugarcane is rather deceptive. It omits [sugar beet](41544), but includes the weight of the woody stalk. Most of the plants which produce food are in the grass family [Poaceae](127817).
|Crop|2000|2013|2020|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1,256,380|1,877,110|1,870,246||
|599,355|745,710|1,264,410||
|592,479|1,016,741|1,171,332||
|585,691|713,183|760,931||
|327,600|368,096|359,124||
## Related pages
- [Agriculture](71284)
- [Aquaculture](30)
- Bee keeping
- [Animal husbandry](19450)
- [Fertilizer](3515)s
- [Crop rotation](50498)
- Urban farming
- Breeding
- [Fencing](566454)
- Ranching
- [Plantation](50640)
- [Combine harvester](525869)
- [Tractor](143489)
- [Crop protection](347010)
- [Cultured meat](555427)
- [Genetically modified food](373881)
### Agriculture by country
- [Agriculture in Azerbaijan](409726)
- [Agriculture in Pakistan](142937)
|
Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for food and raw materials. Farming is a significant part of agriculture.
## History
Farming began in different parts of the world, independently; There were at least 11 separate centers of origin.
Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC; Later came domestication of mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan c. 10,500 years ago.
The development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution as people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in cities.
Farming and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, the Levant and Mesopotamia). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew.
Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC.
Livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats were taken to the Americas, from the Old World. The first of those horses, came with the Spanish conquistadors (or soldiers and explorers) in the 1490s. Moving those cattle, sheep, goats and horses, were part of the Columbian Exchange.
People probably started agriculture by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land.
This allowed the human population to grow to such large numbers as there are today.
## Types
- Arable farming means growing crops. This would include wheat or vegetables.
- Growing fruit means having orchards devoted to fruit. They cannot be switched easily with growing field crops. Therefore, they are not classed as arable land in the statistics.
Many people still live by subsistence farming, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years.
In some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more.
This kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kill bugs), and herbicides (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the soil or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by erosion (blowing or washing away), salt builddup, or loss of structure. Irrigation (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education.
Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and nutritional value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and drought, and are easier to harvest. Centuries of artificial selection and breeding have changed crop plants. The crops produce better yield. Fertilizers, chemical pest control, and irrigation all help.
Some plants are improved with genetic engineering. One example is modifying the plant to resist herbicides.
### Livestock
Farms may also keep animals. That is called animal husbandry. If they are used to make meat for people to eat, that is livestock production. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, are kept for their produce. "Produce" here means their eggs and milk, which are sold by the farm, usually in markets. Large animals need grassland of some kind for grazing. What they need depends on the animals. Goats eat a much wider range of plants than cows. In some parts of the world, that makes goats a more sensible choice for a farmer than cows.
## Food
It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture.
- Traditional agriculture is mostly done in poor countries.
- Intensive agriculture is mostly done in countries with more money. It uses pesticides, machinery, chemical fertilizers.
- Organic farming is using only natural products such as compost and green manure.
- Integrated farming is using local resources, and trying to use the waste from one process as a resource in another process.
Agricultural policy means the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food.
## Problems
There are some serious problems that people face trying to grow food today.
These include:
- Pollution
- Erosion
- Diseases
- Pests
- Weeds
- Drought
- Rainfall
- Climate: Earth warming is an important example
- Contamination
There are also difficulties with the distribution of food:
- Warfare: see Nigerian Civil War (Biafran War) for an example. See Russia–Ukrainian war for another example.
- Distribution: Difficulties with moving product from grower to consumer. It is expected that this difficulty will increase in future. The reasons for this are complex, but one important factor may be the absence of a dominant international naval power. The British Navy provided protection against pirates in the 19th and early 20th century, and the US Navy protected shipping after WWII. The US is still a dominant naval power, but its power will soon be based on its small number of huge aircraft carriers. They will not deal with small boats full of armed pirates, which is the usual way piracy is done. So we can expect grain ships (etc) will have to carry any protection they may need, or they will have to go the long way around. That means avoiding the shortcuts into the Mediterranean. Other kinds of warfare, such as we see in Ukraine, add to the problem of shipping food products safely.
## Crops
In produced weight, these crops are the most important (global production in metric tonnes):
The figure for sugarcane is rather deceptive. It omits sugar beet, but includes the weight of the woody stalk. Most of the plants which produce food are in the grass family Poaceae.
|Crop|2000|2013|2020|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1,256,380|1,877,110|1,870,246||
|599,355|745,710|1,264,410||
|592,479|1,016,741|1,171,332||
|585,691|713,183|760,931||
|327,600|368,096|359,124||
## Related pages
- Agriculture
- Aquaculture
- Bee keeping
- Animal husbandry
- Fertilizers
- Crop rotation
- Urban farming
- Breeding
- Fencing
- Ranching
- Plantation
- Combine harvester
- Tractor
- Crop protection
- Cultured meat
- Genetically modified food
### Agriculture by country
- Agriculture in Azerbaijan
- Agriculture in Pakistan
|
medium
| false
| false
|
21
|
Arithmetic
|
In [mathematics](467), **arithmetic** is the basic study of [number](528)s. The four basic arithmetic operations are [addition](286359), [subtraction](286359), [multiplication](286359), and [division](286359), although other operations such as [exponentiation](286359) and [roots](286359) are also studied in arithmetic.
Other arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, [fractions](56416), [decimal](66498)s and [percentages](3680).
## Overview
Most people learn arithmetic in [primary school](12292), but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic.
## Applications
A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include [carpenter](13256)s, plumbers, [mechanics](42828), accountants, [architect](13217)s, [doctor](191361)s, and [nurse](12364)s. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, [science](700), and [engineering](2816).
Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A [calculator](193867) can also be used to perform arithmetic. [Computer](112)s can do it more quickly, which is one reason [Global Positioning System](82503) receivers have a small computer inside.
## Examples
- (addition is [commutative](247265): is the same as )
- (subtraction is not commutative: is different from )
- (multiplication is commutative: is the same as )
- (division is not commutative: is different from
## Related pages
- [Algebra](45)
- [Calculus](161)
- [Affine arithmetic](761656)
- [Interval arithmetic](761155)
- [Modular arithmetic](145380)
- [Elementary algebra](33242)
|
In mathematics, **arithmetic** is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and roots are also studied in arithmetic.
Other arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages.
## Overview
Most people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic.
## Applications
A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering.
Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside.
## Examples
- (addition is commutative: is the same as )
- (subtraction is not commutative: is different from )
- (multiplication is commutative: is the same as )
- (division is not commutative: is different from
## Related pages
- Algebra
- Calculus
- Affine arithmetic
- Interval arithmetic
- Modular arithmetic
- Elementary algebra
|
high
| false
| false
|
22
|
Addition
|
- _Not to be confused with [building extension](930769)s which are also called additions._
In [mathematics](467), **addition**, represented by the symbol , is an operation which combines two mathematical objects together into another mathematical object of the same type, called the [sum](8574). Addition can occur with simple objects such as [number](528)s, and more complex objects and concepts such as [vector](3662)s and [matrices](5398).
Addition has several important properties. It is [commutative](247265), meaning that the order of the [operand](621332)s does not matter, and it is [associative](123853), meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which addition is performed does not matter (see _Summation_). Repeated addition of [1](571) is the same as counting. Addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as [subtraction](286359) and [multiplication](286359).
## Arithmetic
In [arithmetic](21), addition is the operation where two or more [number](528)s called "addends" are used to make a new number, which is the "[sum](8574)" or total that is expressed with the [equals sign](90420). The symbol for addition, in [infix notation](64699), is the plus sign "+" placed between the operands.
### Counting examples
For example, there are objects in two groups (as shown on the right). The objects are various shapes, where one group has 3 of them while the other has 2. When the two groups combine into one, the overall amount (sum) of the shapes become 5.
#### Vertical Addition
The animation above demonstrates the addition of seven hundred eighty six and four hundred sixty seven. The problem's digits have been separated into units, tens and hundreds (see [Place value](445425)).
First, the units 6 and 7 are added together to make 13, so 1 ten and 3 units, with the 3 written below and the 1 ten carried to the tens column. Next, in the tens column, the 1, 8, and 6 are added together to make 15 tens, so 1 hundred and 5 tens, with the 5 written below and the 1 hundred carried to the hundreds column. Finally, in the hundreds column, 1, 7, and 4 are added together to make 12 hundreds, so 1 thousand and 2 hundreds, with the 2 written below and the 1 thousand carried to the thousand column. The final answer is thus one thousand two hundred fifty three.
### A measurement example
Tom wants to know the distance between his house and Sally's house. Bob's house is 300 [m](518) east of Tom's house. Sally's house is 120 m east of Bob's house:
- Tom's house 300 m Bob's house 120 m Sally's house
The distance from Tom's house to Sally's house can be found by adding the distances already measured. The distance from Tom's house to Bob's house, added to the distance from Bob's house to Sally's house, is the same as the distance from Tom's house to Sally's house. That is, 300 m plus 120 m.
Hence Sally's house is 420 m to the east of Tom's house.
### Commutativity
Addition is [commutative](247265), meaning that one can change the order of the numbers in a sum, but still get the same result. For example:
- and
### Associativity
Addition is also [associative](123853), which means that when three or more numbers are added together, the [order of operations](40646) does not change the result.
For any three numbers , , and , it is true that . For example, and , which means that .
When addition is used together with other operations, the order of operations becomes important. In the standard order of operations, addition is to be computed later than [exponentiation](286359), [roots](286359), [multiplication](286359) and [division](286359), but has equal importance as [subtraction](286359).
## Related pages
- [Operations](286359)
- [Identity element](51861)
- [Order of operations](40646)
- [Hyperoperation](312545)
## Other websites
- [AAA Math: Addition](https://www.aaamath.com/add.html)
|
- _Not to be confused with building extensions which are also called additions._
In mathematics, **addition**, represented by the symbol , is an operation which combines two mathematical objects together into another mathematical object of the same type, called the sum. Addition can occur with simple objects such as numbers, and more complex objects and concepts such as vectors and matrices.
Addition has several important properties. It is commutative, meaning that the order of the operands does not matter, and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which addition is performed does not matter (see _Summation_). Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting. Addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication.
## Arithmetic
In arithmetic, addition is the operation where two or more numbers called "addends" are used to make a new number, which is the "sum" or total that is expressed with the equals sign. The symbol for addition, in infix notation, is the plus sign "+" placed between the operands.
### Counting examples
For example, there are objects in two groups (as shown on the right). The objects are various shapes, where one group has 3 of them while the other has 2. When the two groups combine into one, the overall amount (sum) of the shapes become 5.
#### Vertical Addition
The animation above demonstrates the addition of seven hundred eighty six and four hundred sixty seven. The problem's digits have been separated into units, tens and hundreds (see Place value).
First, the units 6 and 7 are added together to make 13, so 1 ten and 3 units, with the 3 written below and the 1 ten carried to the tens column. Next, in the tens column, the 1, 8, and 6 are added together to make 15 tens, so 1 hundred and 5 tens, with the 5 written below and the 1 hundred carried to the hundreds column. Finally, in the hundreds column, 1, 7, and 4 are added together to make 12 hundreds, so 1 thousand and 2 hundreds, with the 2 written below and the 1 thousand carried to the thousand column. The final answer is thus one thousand two hundred fifty three.
### A measurement example
Tom wants to know the distance between his house and Sally's house. Bob's house is 300 m east of Tom's house. Sally's house is 120 m east of Bob's house:
- Tom's house 300 m Bob's house 120 m Sally's house
The distance from Tom's house to Sally's house can be found by adding the distances already measured. The distance from Tom's house to Bob's house, added to the distance from Bob's house to Sally's house, is the same as the distance from Tom's house to Sally's house. That is, 300 m plus 120 m.
Hence Sally's house is 420 m to the east of Tom's house.
### Commutativity
Addition is commutative, meaning that one can change the order of the numbers in a sum, but still get the same result. For example:
- and
### Associativity
Addition is also associative, which means that when three or more numbers are added together, the order of operations does not change the result.
For any three numbers , , and , it is true that . For example, and , which means that .
When addition is used together with other operations, the order of operations becomes important. In the standard order of operations, addition is to be computed later than exponentiation, roots, multiplication and division, but has equal importance as subtraction.
## Related pages
- Operations
- Identity element
- Order of operations
- Hyperoperation
## Other websites
- AAA Math: Addition
|
unknown
| false
| false
|
27
|
Australia
|
**Australia**, officially the **Commonwealth of Australia**, is an island country and [sovereign state](195252) located in the [southern hemisphere](12161), in [Oceania](2032). Its [capital city](1968) is [Canberra](4742), and its largest city is [Sydney](4743). It is mostly a desert country.
Australia is the [sixth biggest country in the world](4809) by land area, and is part of the [Oceanic](2032) and [Australasia](296251)n regions. Australia, [New Zealand](5072), [New Guinea](31570) and other islands on the Australian [tectonic plate](60789) are together called [Australasia](296251), which is one of the world's great [ecozone](57246)s. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called [Oceania](2032).
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Commonwealth of Australia
- **common name**: Australia
- **image flag**: Flag of Australia (converted).svg
- **alt flag**: A blue field with the union flag in the upper hoist quarter, a large white seven-pointed star in the lower hoist quarter, and constellation of five white stars in the fly – one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars.
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg
- **alt coat**: A Kangaroo and an Emu are supporting the emblem of Australia on a Golden Wattle tree.
- **national anthem**: "Advance Australia Fair"
- **royal anthem**: God Save the King
- **image map**: Australia_with_AAT_(orthographic_projection).svg
- **map width**: 220px
- **alt map**: A map of Australia in Australasia
- **capital**: Canberra
- **common languages**: English language, English
- **today**: Australasia
- **government type**: Federalism, Federal parliamentary system, parliamentary constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Monarchy of Australia, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Charles III
- **leader name2**: Sam Mostyn
- **leader title3**: Prime Minister of Australia, Prime Minister
- **leader name3**: Anthony Albanese
- **leader title4**: Deputy Prime Minister of Australia, Deputy Prime Minister
- **leader name4**: Richard Marles
- **leader title5**: Chief Justice of Australia, Chief Justice
- **leader name5**: Stephen Gageler
- **leader title6**: President of the Senate (Australia), Senate President
- **leader name6**: Sue Lines
- **leader title7**: Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives, House Speaker
- **leader name7**: Milton Dick
- **legislature**: Parliament of Australia, Parliament
- **upper house**: Australian Senate, Senate
- **lower house**: Australian House of Representatives, House of Representatives
- **sovereignty type**: Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom
- **established event1**: Federation of Australia, Federation, Constitution of Australia, Constitution
- **established date1**: 1 January 1901
- **established event2**: Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act
- **established event3**: Australia Act 1986, Australia Act
- **established date3**: 3 March 1986
- **area km2**: 7688287
- **area rank**: 6th
- **percent water**: 1.79
- **population census**: 25,890,773
- **population estimate rank**: 54th
- **population census year**: 2021
- **population density rank**: 237th
- **gdp ppp year**: 2025
- **gdp ppp rank**: 20th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: US$72,138
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 20th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2025
- **gdp nominal rank**: 14th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: US$64,547
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 11th
- **gini**: 32.4
- **gini year**: 2020
- **gini change**: decrease
- **gini rank**: 19th
- **hdi**: 0.958
- **hdi year**: 2023
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 7th
- **currency**: Australian dollar ($)
- **currency code**: AUD
- **time zone**: Time in Australia, various
- **utc offset**: +8 to +10.5
- **utc offset dst**: +8 to +11.5
- **time zone dst**: Time in Australia, various
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy
- **electricity**: 230 V–50 Hz
- **drives on**: Right- and left-hand traffic#Australia, left
- **calling code**: +61
- **cctld**: .au
|
**Australia**, officially the **Commonwealth of Australia**, is an island country and sovereign state located in the southern hemisphere, in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. It is mostly a desert country.
Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania.
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Commonwealth of Australia
- **common name**: Australia
- **image flag**: Flag of Australia (converted).svg
- **alt flag**: A blue field with the union flag in the upper hoist quarter, a large white seven-pointed star in the lower hoist quarter, and constellation of five white stars in the fly – one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars.
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg
- **alt coat**: A Kangaroo and an Emu are supporting the emblem of Australia on a Golden Wattle tree.
- **national anthem**: "Advance Australia Fair"
- **royal anthem**: God Save the King
- **image map**: Australia_with_AAT_(orthographic_projection).svg
- **map width**: 220px
- **alt map**: A map of Australia in Australasia
- **capital**: Canberra
- **common languages**: English language, English
- **today**: Australasia
- **government type**: Federalism, Federal parliamentary system, parliamentary constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Monarchy of Australia, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Charles III
- **leader name2**: Sam Mostyn
- **leader title3**: Prime Minister of Australia, Prime Minister
- **leader name3**: Anthony Albanese
- **leader title4**: Deputy Prime Minister of Australia, Deputy Prime Minister
- **leader name4**: Richard Marles
- **leader title5**: Chief Justice of Australia, Chief Justice
- **leader name5**: Stephen Gageler
- **leader title6**: President of the Senate (Australia), Senate President
- **leader name6**: Sue Lines
- **leader title7**: Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives, House Speaker
- **leader name7**: Milton Dick
- **legislature**: Parliament of Australia, Parliament
- **upper house**: Australian Senate, Senate
- **lower house**: Australian House of Representatives, House of Representatives
- **sovereignty type**: Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom
- **established event1**: Federation of Australia, Federation, Constitution of Australia, Constitution
- **established date1**: 1 January 1901
- **established event2**: Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act
- **established event3**: Australia Act 1986, Australia Act
- **established date3**: 3 March 1986
- **area km2**: 7688287
- **area rank**: 6th
- **percent water**: 1.79
- **population census**: 25,890,773
- **population estimate rank**: 54th
- **population census year**: 2021
- **population density rank**: 237th
- **gdp ppp year**: 2025
- **gdp ppp rank**: 20th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: US$72,138
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 20th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2025
- **gdp nominal rank**: 14th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: US$64,547
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 11th
- **gini**: 32.4
- **gini year**: 2020
- **gini change**: decrease
- **gini rank**: 19th
- **hdi**: 0.958
- **hdi year**: 2023
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 7th
- **currency**: Australian dollar ($)
- **currency code**: AUD
- **time zone**: Time in Australia, various
- **utc offset**: +8 to +10.5
- **utc offset dst**: +8 to +11.5
- **time zone dst**: Time in Australia, various
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy
- **electricity**: 230 V–50 Hz
- **drives on**: Right- and left-hand traffic#Australia, left
- **calling code**: +61
- **cctld**: .au
|
high
| true
| false
|
28
|
American English
|
**American English**, or **US English**, is the [dialect](21596) of [English](2843) that is spoken in the [United States](219587). It is different from other types of English like [British English](83). Most types of American English came from local dialects in [England](3047). During the 18th and 19th centuries, pronunciation changed less in America than in England.
## Use
Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country that speaks another type of English. They hear and read American English through the [media](93642), such as [movie](3486)s, [television](38049), and the [Internet](362), where the most common form of English is American English.
Because people all over the world use [English](2843), many new words are used. English has been changing that way for hundreds of years. For example, the millions who speak [Indian English](135567) frequently add American English words to go along with its [British English](83) base and many other words from the various Indian languages.
Some people learn American English as it is spoken in the [United States](219587). For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from America. Those people often keep using American English in everyday life.
## Spelling
There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English.
## Vocabulary
There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English.:
- aeroplane is called "airplane"
- ladybird is called "ladybug"
- lift is called "elevator"
- toilet is called "bathroom", "restroom" or "comfort station"
- lorry is called "truck"
- nappies are called "diapers"
- petrol is called "gas" (or "gasoline")
- the boot of a car is called a "trunk"
- a dummy is called a "pacifier"
- trousers are called "pants"
- underground is called "subway"
- football is called "soccer"
- braces are "suspenders" ("suspenders" in British -English are a type of clothing that is worn around the lower leg to stop socks/sox from sagging or around the upper leg by people wearing stockings)
## Regional accents
General American English is the kind most spoken in [mass media](93642). It more vigorously pronounces the letter "r" than some other kinds do. Non-rhoticity (["R"-dropping](569663)) is frequent in certain places in which "r" is not pronounced after a [vowel](32620) such as in the words "car" and "card," which sound like "cah" and "cahd" in places like the [Boston](253096) area.
Here are some regional accents of American English:
- **[Appalachian English](393168)** - This is the stereotypical [hillbilly](1119750) accent, is completely rhotic, and can even add "r" in words such as "warsh" for "wash."
- **General Southern** - This is a range of accents tending to be rhotic or semi-rhotic and to have glide deletion in which "I" is converted to broad "a."
- **Tidewater English** - A non-rhotic ("r"-dropping) southern variety that also has a "**Scottish**" or "**Canadian**" raising of the "ow" diphthong in words like "house," "about," and "brown."
- **Charleston** and **Savannah English** - Almost extinct, these accents that are non-rhotic
- **Boston English** (also [East New England English](971952)) - This is the most famous non-rhotic American accent, and most other non-rhotic American varieties often get compared to it. Aniother Bostonian feature is the limited Canadian raising of the "ow" diphthong before voiceless consonants in words like "house" and "about."
- **New York City English** - One of the most recognizable dialects in the US, it is characterized by variable non-rhoticity or semi-rhoticity and a rounding of the long **o** sound, making "coffee" and "thought" sound like "cawfee" and "thawt."
- **South Louisiana English** - This group of non-rhotic accents can be heard in [New Orleans](14199) and its surrounding areas. It can be described as a combination between New York City English and Southern American English.
- **Northern Midwest English** - This area has accents that tend to sound a lot like [Canadian English](174681).
- **Valley girl** and **surfer dude** - This accent is common to [Southern California](216485) and has features like "vocal fry" (creaky voice) and "upturn" at the ends of sentences.
## Other websites
- [American English -Citizendium](https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/American_English)
## Infobox (language)
- **name**: American English
- **region**: United States
- **speakers**: 225 million, all varieties of English in the United States
- **date**: 2010 census
- **speakers2**: 25.6 million L2 speakers of English in the United States (2003)
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Germanic languages, Germanic
- **fam3**: West Germanic languages, West Germanic
- **fam4**: North Sea Germanic, Ingvaeonic
- **fam5**: Anglo-Frisian languages, Anglo–Frisian
- **fam6**: English language, English
- **fam7**: North American English
- **ancestor**: Old English
- **ancestor2**: Middle English
- **ancestor3**: Early Modern English, 17th century Modern English
- **nation**: United States
(32 US states, 5 non-state US territories) (see Languages of the United States#Official languages, article)
- **script**: Latin script, Latin (English alphabet)
Unified English Braille
- **isoexception**: dialect
- **glotto**: none
- **notice**: IPA
|
**American English**, or **US English**, is the dialect of English that is spoken in the United States. It is different from other types of English like British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England. During the 18th and 19th centuries, pronunciation changed less in America than in England.
## Use
Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country that speaks another type of English. They hear and read American English through the media, such as movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English.
Because people all over the world use English, many new words are used. English has been changing that way for hundreds of years. For example, the millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages.
Some people learn American English as it is spoken in the United States. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from America. Those people often keep using American English in everyday life.
## Spelling
There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English.
## Vocabulary
There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English.:
- aeroplane is called "airplane"
- ladybird is called "ladybug"
- lift is called "elevator"
- toilet is called "bathroom", "restroom" or "comfort station"
- lorry is called "truck"
- nappies are called "diapers"
- petrol is called "gas" (or "gasoline")
- the boot of a car is called a "trunk"
- a dummy is called a "pacifier"
- trousers are called "pants"
- underground is called "subway"
- football is called "soccer"
- braces are "suspenders" ("suspenders" in British -English are a type of clothing that is worn around the lower leg to stop socks/sox from sagging or around the upper leg by people wearing stockings)
## Regional accents
General American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter "r" than some other kinds do. Non-rhoticity ("R"-dropping) is frequent in certain places in which "r" is not pronounced after a vowel such as in the words "car" and "card," which sound like "cah" and "cahd" in places like the Boston area.
Here are some regional accents of American English:
- **Appalachian English** - This is the stereotypical hillbilly accent, is completely rhotic, and can even add "r" in words such as "warsh" for "wash."
- **General Southern** - This is a range of accents tending to be rhotic or semi-rhotic and to have glide deletion in which "I" is converted to broad "a."
- **Tidewater English** - A non-rhotic ("r"-dropping) southern variety that also has a "**Scottish**" or "**Canadian**" raising of the "ow" diphthong in words like "house," "about," and "brown."
- **Charleston** and **Savannah English** - Almost extinct, these accents that are non-rhotic
- **Boston English** (also East New England English) - This is the most famous non-rhotic American accent, and most other non-rhotic American varieties often get compared to it. Aniother Bostonian feature is the limited Canadian raising of the "ow" diphthong before voiceless consonants in words like "house" and "about."
- **New York City English** - One of the most recognizable dialects in the US, it is characterized by variable non-rhoticity or semi-rhoticity and a rounding of the long **o** sound, making "coffee" and "thought" sound like "cawfee" and "thawt."
- **South Louisiana English** - This group of non-rhotic accents can be heard in New Orleans and its surrounding areas. It can be described as a combination between New York City English and Southern American English.
- **Northern Midwest English** - This area has accents that tend to sound a lot like Canadian English.
- **Valley girl** and **surfer dude** - This accent is common to Southern California and has features like "vocal fry" (creaky voice) and "upturn" at the ends of sentences.
## Other websites
- American English -Citizendium
## Infobox (language)
- **name**: American English
- **region**: United States
- **speakers**: 225 million, all varieties of English in the United States
- **date**: 2010 census
- **speakers2**: 25.6 million L2 speakers of English in the United States (2003)
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Germanic languages, Germanic
- **fam3**: West Germanic languages, West Germanic
- **fam4**: North Sea Germanic, Ingvaeonic
- **fam5**: Anglo-Frisian languages, Anglo–Frisian
- **fam6**: English language, English
- **fam7**: North American English
- **ancestor**: Old English
- **ancestor2**: Middle English
- **ancestor3**: Early Modern English, 17th century Modern English
- **nation**: United States
(32 US states, 5 non-state US territories) (see Languages of the United States#Official languages, article)
- **script**: Latin script, Latin (English alphabet)
Unified English Braille
- **isoexception**: dialect
- **glotto**: none
- **notice**: IPA
|
high
| false
| false
|
30
|
Aquaculture
|
**Aquaculture** is the [farming](19) of [fish](285), [shrimp](41154), abalones, [algae](21914), and other [seafood](12378). Aquaculture supplies fish, such as [catfish](85711), [salmon](20095), and [trout](18972). It was developed a few thousand years ago in [China](120). Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested.
Fish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. [Goldfish](21630) originated about a thousand years ago in [carp](15256) farms in China, and the [Roman Empire](664) farmed [oyster](43366)s and other seafood. Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed. To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast.
The environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed.
|
**Aquaculture** is the farming of fish, shrimp, abalones, algae, and other seafood. Aquaculture supplies fish, such as catfish, salmon, and trout. It was developed a few thousand years ago in China. Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested.
Fish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. Goldfish originated about a thousand years ago in carp farms in China, and the Roman Empire farmed oysters and other seafood. Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed. To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast.
The environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
32
|
Abbreviation
|
An **abbreviation** is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot.
## In English
The [English language](2843) occasionally uses the [apostrophe](20731) mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark.
### Borrowed Latin phrases
More often, they use [periods](140582), especially the ones that come from the [Latin](6592) language, which include **i.e.** [id est] (_that is_), **e.g.** [exempli gratia] (_for example_) and **et al.** [et alia] (_and others_).
Some new abbreviations have been created by [scientists](748), by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the [Internet](362). People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are [acronyms](5008).
### Examples
Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "[radar](25169)" is an [acronym](5008) for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company [IBM](23439) comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the [United States](219587) government that sends [rocket](6793)s into [outer space](2899) is [NASA](24512), from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration".
When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible".
## Other websites
- [Acronym Finder](http://www.acronymfinder.com) - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10-year history.
- [All Acronyms](http://www.all-acronyms.com) - a website with a large number of abbreviations and acronyms
- [Acronyms Abbreviations and Slang](http://acronymsandslang.com) - over 3 million different acronyms and abbreviations in searchable database
- [SlangLang Abbreviations](https://www.slanglang.net/abbreviations/) - Slang Words: 2,700 abbreviations and their meanings
|
An **abbreviation** is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot.
## In English
The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark.
### Borrowed Latin phrases
More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language, which include **i.e.** [id est] (_that is_), **e.g.** [exempli gratia] (_for example_) and **et al.** [et alia] (_and others_).
Some new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet. People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms.
### Examples
Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "radar" is an acronym for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration".
When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible".
## Other websites
- Acronym Finder - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10-year history.
- All Acronyms - a website with a large number of abbreviations and acronyms
- Acronyms Abbreviations and Slang - over 3 million different acronyms and abbreviations in searchable database
- SlangLang Abbreviations - Slang Words: 2,700 abbreviations and their meanings
|
high
| false
| false
|
33
|
Angel
|
In many mythologies and [religion](653)s, an **angel** is a good [spirit](753). The word angel comes from the [Greek](4606) word _angelos_ which means "messenger". Angels appear frequently in the [Old Testament](11272), the [New Testament](11265), [Qur'an](4449) and [Aqdas](378777).
Different references to angels throughout the Bible suggest different kinds and ranks of angels, such as seraphs (Hebrew [plural](2029): seraphim) or cherubs (Hebrew plural: cherubim). This resulted in medieval theologians outlining a hierarchy of such divine messengers, including not only cherubs and seraphs, but also archangels, powers, principalities, dominions and thrones.
The study of angels is called angelology.
## In the Bible
Angels are powerful spirits that obey God's commands. They sometimes appear to [human](502310)s in a human form. They can deliver messages to people in person or in [dream](40063)s. Angels that are named in the [Bible](2866) are [Michael](429404) (called a "chief prince"), [Gabriel](16948) (known for telling Mary that she would be the mother of [Jesus](219585)), and Raphael (in the [Apocrypha](5361)l [Book of Tobit](131471)). The [Ethiopia](10484)n [Book of Enoch](184881) also lists four Archangels which watch over the four parts of heaven; Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and [Uriel](611325). Lucifer is also known as an angel in the Bible.
### Appearances in Genesis
[God](596599), in the [Book of Genesis](11278) sends an Angel with a [sword](9713) made out of [fire](9476) to keep [Adam and Eve](26220) from going back to the [Garden of Eden](69704).
- He later sends an angel to [Hagar](1002498) to tell her not to run away from [Abraham](24304) and that she will give birth to [Ishmael](48523).
- After Abraham is [circumcised](30427), three men come to him to tell him that his wife [Sarah](118076) will give birth to a son [Isaac](118075) and they turn out to be angels.
- Two angels pretending to be human go to [Sodom and Gomorrah](333625) to see if there are ten good people there but there aren't so one of them destroys Sodom and the other rescues [Lot](605595) and his family.
- When Abraham sends Hagar and Ishmael away later, an Angel of [God](596599) comes to her to help them.
- When [Jacob](168842) runs away from [Esau](418420), he falls asleep and has a [dream](40063) about angels climbing up and down a ladder. When Jacob goes back to [Canaan](9715), he fights a man who turns out to be an Angel and wins. Jacob says he'll let the Angel go if the Angel gives him a blessing so the Angel changes Jacob's name to [Israel](9720). Jacob asks the Angel "what is your name?" and the Angel asks Jacob why he wants to know.
### Appearances in Exodus
In the Book of Exodus, an Angel comes to a bush and makes a fire but the bush doesn't burn. When [Moses](9714) sees this, he comes close to the Bush and he hears [God](596599) speak to him. On the way to Egypt, Moses forgets to [circumcise](30427) his son so an Angel tries to kill him but then [Zipporah](886887) [circumcises](30427) him and the Angel lets Moses live. Angels are also there when God gives the [Ten Commandments](845) at Mount Sinai.
### Appearances in Leviticus
In the [Book of Leviticus](102238), the [Ark of the Covenant](84439), has statues of two angels called Cherubim on top of it.
### Appearances in Numbers
In the [Book of Numbers](84211), [Balaam](978910) goes to [curse](48864) the [Israelites](9720) but [God](596599) sends an Angel to be a [Satan](16564) against Balaam. Balaam doesn't see the Angel but his donkey does so she moves out of the way. Balaam then hits her and gets her to go continue moving. When the donkey sees the Angel again and Balaam doesn't, she moves to the other side of the road and Balaam hits her and she starts walking again. When she sees the Angle again and there's nowhere on the road to go, she stops moving, so Balaam hits her. Balaam's donkey then talks to him and asks him why he's hitting her. He says if he had a sword, then he would kill her. Then Balaam sees the Angel and the Angel tells Balaam that Balaam's donkey is more righteous than he is and that he would have only killed Balaam but not the donkey.
### Appearances in Deuteronomy
When Moses spoke to the Israelites in the Book of Deuteronomy, there were ten thousand angels next to him.
### Appearances in Judges
[God](596599) sends an Angel to Gideon in the [Book of Judges](102411) to tell Gideon that he must save the [Israelites](9720). He later sends an Angel to an Israelite woman and her husband Manoach to tell them that they would have a son [Samson](230366).
### Appearances in Samuel
When [King](410) [David](118176) has a [census](3016), [God](596599) punishes him by sending an Angel to cause a plague.
### Appearances in Kings
When [Queen](3309) Jezebel wants to kill [Elijah](223250), an Angel comes to help him. Another Angel later protects [Elisha](1096096). When [King](410) [Ahab](223386) asks the prophet Micaiah for a prediction, Mecaiah tells him that [God](596599) sent an Angel to trick Ahab into fighting a war and getting killed. Later when Sannecherib attacks [Judah](50119), God sends His Angel to kill Sannecherib's entire Assyrian [army](2115).
### Isaiah
[Isaiah](18052) said that the Angels sang songs and that every Angel had six wings, two for covering its face, two for covering its feet and two for flying. Isaiah said that when he heard the Angels sing he said "I am doomed for I live among a people of unclean lips" and that God got angry with him for saying that.
### Ezekiel
The [Book of Ezekiel](131596) begins with [Ezekiel](858308) seeing Angels on a [Chariot](126140).
### Zechariah
The prophet [Zechariah](377041) saw an Angel tell him that God would have [mercy](102806) on the Jews. And that their enemies will be punished. Another Angel says that even the [Kingdom of Israel](973128) will come back to the land. Zechariah sees an Angel defending the [Priest](19070) from [The Satan](16564) when The Satan says that the Priest did a bad thing. An Angel shows Zechariah a [Menorah](373812) in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Angel tells Zechariah that the children of Zerubavel will be Kings.
### Malachi
[God](596599) told [Malachi](456743) that He would send an Angel and [Elijah](223250) to announce that the [Messiah](6832) was coming.
### Job
In the [Book of Job](43873), all the Angels meet with [God](596599) and [The Satan](16564) bets God that he can make Job curse God
### Daniel
In the [Book of Daniel](131597), an Angel rescues Daniel's friends from [Nebuchadnezzar.](93810) Daniel also mentions Angels being named [Michael](429404) and [Gabriel](16948)
### Chronicles
In the [Books of Chronicles](118400), [The Satan](16564) gets King David to want to have his census.
### Appearances in The New Testament
In the [New Testament](11265), an Angel tells The Virgin Mary that she will give birth to [Jesus](219585), Angels proclaim the birth of Jesus in the Adoration of the shepherds (Luke 2:10) and Angels help Jesus in the desert.
In Luke 22:43 of the New Testament, an Angel comforts Jesus during the agony in the garden of Gethsemane and in Matthew 28:5 an Angel speaks at the empty tomb following the [Resurrection of Jesus](131805) saying: “Do not be afraid, for I know that you are looking for Jesus, who was crucified. He is not here; he has risen, just as He said".
## Types of Angels
- **Cherubs** are described as creatures which have four wings. Cherubim guard the [Eden](69704) with a [sword](9713) of fire. This suggests that the author of Genesis was aware of different types of angels. A Cherub is mentioned in Ezekiel 28:13-14, saying that the angel was in the Garden of God.
Ezekiel 28:13-14
13. Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle and gold: the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created.
14. Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth; and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God; thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire.
It describes the sound of their wings, "like the roar of rushing waters."
Ezekiel 10:5-7 ; Ezekiel 10:8 reveals that they have hands like a man under their wings .
Ezekiel 1:7 KJV reveals that they look like man but are different because they have "straight feet" and four wings and four faces.
Ezekiel ch 1, and 10 describe the cherubim creatures ascending and descending from the earth with wheels. Ezekiel 1:14-20 ; Ezekiel 10:16
Ezekiel 10:9-13 describes what the wheels appeared to look like, and how they moved around, how they moved or flew through the sky quickly but turned not as they went; and how the inside workings of the wheels appeared to be "a wheel in the midst of a wheel" and that the color of the wheels was the color of "Amber" Stone. There are four separate wheels in both accounts, one for each single cherub which is there.
- **Seraphs** (Hebrew for "burning") are depicted as having six wings They are known for singing and praising God. They can shout so loud, they shake the [temple](852).
- **Archangels** like Gabriel ([Gospel of Luke](100102) 1:19) are the highest type of angel. They are considered [saint](336412)s in the [Catholic church](10754). However, in the King James Version of the Bible; they are another type of angel. In the [Book of Revelation](101481) the Angel Michael casts the 'great dragon' [Satan](16564) out of heaven and down to earth in a great battle between the good and bad angels, just before the Great Judgement of angels and man. (Revelation 12)
- The [Leviathan](278688) in [Book of Job](43873) 41:19-21 has flame that goes: 'out of his mouth' like a [dragon](7335). Isaiah 30:6 also talks of a 'fiery flying serpent'. Compare Revelation 20:2: , where an angel: 'laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the [Devil](195), and Satan, and bound him a thousand years'.
### Rabbinic Judaism
In [Judaism](219593) angels are created by God from fire. They fullfil tasks given by God. Rabbinic Judaism rejects earlier accounts on fallen angels who sinned by mating with humans. Instead, angels are servants of God. Still, not all angels are benevolent. Some angels are jealous of humans, because God loves them so much. Unlike angels, humans can overcome sin and repent. Angels cannot repent their sin, because they are already sinless.
When the Bible speaks about the creation of humans in the plural, Judaism sometimes argues that God discussed his decision with the angels. But they make clear, it is God alone who creates humans. God only wanted to discuss with the angels to show that someone in power, should still try to value the opinion of people lower.
### Islam
In [Islam](219592) angels are created by God (referred to as [Allah](17263) in the Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, and Dari languages) before [jinn](53906) and humans. Some say, that before angels however, demons were created. Angels were created in heaven and fullfil God's orders. Some angels deliver messages to humans and prophets, most famous among them is [Gabriel](16948). Other angels support humans with rain. Some angels don't have a task on earth, but dwell in heaven, for example, to praise God.
Muslims disagree if angels can fail a task, but they agree that an angel never wants to disobey. Sometimes angels might simply make mistakes on accident, like the angels [Harut and Marut](911793). But these angels are not considered evil, they just lose their rank as punishment, but can restore their rank later again. Not all angels are nice. God gives angels violent tasks too. For example, God orders angels to punish people in [hell](4923), not demons. Muslims believe hell is under God's control, and not the demon's. They believe hell is not only suffering, but also justice. Angels watch out that people don't escape their punishment. While the benevolent angels are said to be created from light, some Muslims think the angels in hell are created from fire.
Muslims believe that angels are also present in life. They are, however, only in clean places. They are believed to give also good advises and blessings.
## In art
They are often shown in art as having wings and a [halo](29268). The wings represent their speed, and the halo represents their holiness.
The cherubim in art always appear as baby faced angels with very small, non-useful wings.
The cherubim statue or [bronze](26684) casting of cherubim in the Temple of [Solomon](38040) depicted them as two four winged creatures whose wings touched at the peak of the ark that they were making.
The same cherubim creatures were said to be cast in gold on top of the [Ark of the Covenant](84439). Casting metal is one of the oldest forms of artwork, and was attempted by [Leonardo da Vinci](4654).
## In literature
Angels are generally held to be holy and virtuous, hence the term is used loosely to apply to anyone particularly good or kind, or having a good influence. In his novel _Far From the Madding Crowd_, [Thomas Hardy](31928) chooses the name of an angel, Gabriel, for his kind and helpful hero. On the other hand, in his play _Measure for Measure_, [Shakespeare's](354103) use of the name Angelo is ironic, since Angelo is a character who likes to see himself as virtuous, but who is concealing evil aspects of his nature. Fallen angels, who are no longer holy or virtuous, are also known as devils.
However, since angels are held to be spirits (that is, non-material beings), medieval [theologians](2120) were faced with the problem of how humans could see a non-physical creature. Eventually a theory was put forward that angels must make themselves a body out of the nearest thing to the non-physical, i.e. from air. Hence in his famous poem _Aire and Angels_, the seventeenth century metaphysical poet [John Donne](376055) uses this idea to write a cynical comment on women, whose love, he says, is like an angel's body of air, while men's love is like the real thing, the angel itself.
## Idea of Guardian angel
From the era of the Romantics onwards, there has developed the widely held belief that everyone has an angel assigned to guard them. This concept is probably based on Jesus' comment in Matthew 18:10 regarding children, though it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible.
## In superstitions
Seeing repetitive numbers are thought to be associated with [numerology](813201), also referred to as angel numbers. It is believed that angels communicate with humans through repetitive appearances of numbers. Humanity has studied and used numbers since the dawn of time, and no matter what the culture is, there are certain numbers that hold specific value or meaning over other numbers.
## Related pages
- [Demigod](245719)
|
In many mythologies and religions, an **angel** is a good spirit. The word angel comes from the Greek word _angelos_ which means "messenger". Angels appear frequently in the Old Testament, the New Testament, Qur'an and Aqdas.
Different references to angels throughout the Bible suggest different kinds and ranks of angels, such as seraphs (Hebrew plural: seraphim) or cherubs (Hebrew plural: cherubim). This resulted in medieval theologians outlining a hierarchy of such divine messengers, including not only cherubs and seraphs, but also archangels, powers, principalities, dominions and thrones.
The study of angels is called angelology.
## In the Bible
Angels are powerful spirits that obey God's commands. They sometimes appear to humans in a human form. They can deliver messages to people in person or in dreams. Angels that are named in the Bible are Michael (called a "chief prince"), Gabriel (known for telling Mary that she would be the mother of Jesus), and Raphael (in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit). The Ethiopian Book of Enoch also lists four Archangels which watch over the four parts of heaven; Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Uriel. Lucifer is also known as an angel in the Bible.
### Appearances in Genesis
God, in the Book of Genesis sends an Angel with a sword made out of fire to keep Adam and Eve from going back to the Garden of Eden.
- He later sends an angel to Hagar to tell her not to run away from Abraham and that she will give birth to Ishmael.
- After Abraham is circumcised, three men come to him to tell him that his wife Sarah will give birth to a son Isaac and they turn out to be angels.
- Two angels pretending to be human go to Sodom and Gomorrah to see if there are ten good people there but there aren't so one of them destroys Sodom and the other rescues Lot and his family.
- When Abraham sends Hagar and Ishmael away later, an Angel of God comes to her to help them.
- When Jacob runs away from Esau, he falls asleep and has a dream about angels climbing up and down a ladder. When Jacob goes back to Canaan, he fights a man who turns out to be an Angel and wins. Jacob says he'll let the Angel go if the Angel gives him a blessing so the Angel changes Jacob's name to Israel. Jacob asks the Angel "what is your name?" and the Angel asks Jacob why he wants to know.
### Appearances in Exodus
In the Book of Exodus, an Angel comes to a bush and makes a fire but the bush doesn't burn. When Moses sees this, he comes close to the Bush and he hears God speak to him. On the way to Egypt, Moses forgets to circumcise his son so an Angel tries to kill him but then Zipporah circumcises him and the Angel lets Moses live. Angels are also there when God gives the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai.
### Appearances in Leviticus
In the Book of Leviticus, the Ark of the Covenant, has statues of two angels called Cherubim on top of it.
### Appearances in Numbers
In the Book of Numbers, Balaam goes to curse the Israelites but God sends an Angel to be a Satan against Balaam. Balaam doesn't see the Angel but his donkey does so she moves out of the way. Balaam then hits her and gets her to go continue moving. When the donkey sees the Angel again and Balaam doesn't, she moves to the other side of the road and Balaam hits her and she starts walking again. When she sees the Angle again and there's nowhere on the road to go, she stops moving, so Balaam hits her. Balaam's donkey then talks to him and asks him why he's hitting her. He says if he had a sword, then he would kill her. Then Balaam sees the Angel and the Angel tells Balaam that Balaam's donkey is more righteous than he is and that he would have only killed Balaam but not the donkey.
### Appearances in Deuteronomy
When Moses spoke to the Israelites in the Book of Deuteronomy, there were ten thousand angels next to him.
### Appearances in Judges
God sends an Angel to Gideon in the Book of Judges to tell Gideon that he must save the Israelites. He later sends an Angel to an Israelite woman and her husband Manoach to tell them that they would have a son Samson.
### Appearances in Samuel
When King David has a census, God punishes him by sending an Angel to cause a plague.
### Appearances in Kings
When Queen Jezebel wants to kill Elijah, an Angel comes to help him. Another Angel later protects Elisha. When King Ahab asks the prophet Micaiah for a prediction, Mecaiah tells him that God sent an Angel to trick Ahab into fighting a war and getting killed. Later when Sannecherib attacks Judah, God sends His Angel to kill Sannecherib's entire Assyrian army.
### Isaiah
Isaiah said that the Angels sang songs and that every Angel had six wings, two for covering its face, two for covering its feet and two for flying. Isaiah said that when he heard the Angels sing he said "I am doomed for I live among a people of unclean lips" and that God got angry with him for saying that.
### Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel begins with Ezekiel seeing Angels on a Chariot.
### Zechariah
The prophet Zechariah saw an Angel tell him that God would have mercy on the Jews. And that their enemies will be punished. Another Angel says that even the Kingdom of Israel will come back to the land. Zechariah sees an Angel defending the Priest from The Satan when The Satan says that the Priest did a bad thing. An Angel shows Zechariah a Menorah in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Angel tells Zechariah that the children of Zerubavel will be Kings.
### Malachi
God told Malachi that He would send an Angel and Elijah to announce that the Messiah was coming.
### Job
In the Book of Job, all the Angels meet with God and The Satan bets God that he can make Job curse God
### Daniel
In the Book of Daniel, an Angel rescues Daniel's friends from Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel also mentions Angels being named Michael and Gabriel
### Chronicles
In the Books of Chronicles, The Satan gets King David to want to have his census.
### Appearances in The New Testament
In the New Testament, an Angel tells The Virgin Mary that she will give birth to Jesus, Angels proclaim the birth of Jesus in the Adoration of the shepherds (Luke 2:10) and Angels help Jesus in the desert.
In Luke 22:43 of the New Testament, an Angel comforts Jesus during the agony in the garden of Gethsemane and in Matthew 28:5 an Angel speaks at the empty tomb following the Resurrection of Jesus saying: “Do not be afraid, for I know that you are looking for Jesus, who was crucified. He is not here; he has risen, just as He said".
## Types of Angels
- **Cherubs** are described as creatures which have four wings. Cherubim guard the Eden with a sword of fire. This suggests that the author of Genesis was aware of different types of angels. A Cherub is mentioned in Ezekiel 28:13-14, saying that the angel was in the Garden of God.
Ezekiel 28:13-14
13. Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle and gold: the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created.
14. Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth; and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God; thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire.
It describes the sound of their wings, "like the roar of rushing waters."
Ezekiel 10:5-7 ; Ezekiel 10:8 reveals that they have hands like a man under their wings .
Ezekiel 1:7 KJV reveals that they look like man but are different because they have "straight feet" and four wings and four faces.
Ezekiel ch 1, and 10 describe the cherubim creatures ascending and descending from the earth with wheels. Ezekiel 1:14-20 ; Ezekiel 10:16
Ezekiel 10:9-13 describes what the wheels appeared to look like, and how they moved around, how they moved or flew through the sky quickly but turned not as they went; and how the inside workings of the wheels appeared to be "a wheel in the midst of a wheel" and that the color of the wheels was the color of "Amber" Stone. There are four separate wheels in both accounts, one for each single cherub which is there.
- **Seraphs** (Hebrew for "burning") are depicted as having six wings They are known for singing and praising God. They can shout so loud, they shake the temple.
- **Archangels** like Gabriel (Gospel of Luke 1:19) are the highest type of angel. They are considered saints in the Catholic church. However, in the King James Version of the Bible; they are another type of angel. In the Book of Revelation the Angel Michael casts the 'great dragon' Satan out of heaven and down to earth in a great battle between the good and bad angels, just before the Great Judgement of angels and man. (Revelation 12)
- The Leviathan in Book of Job 41:19-21 has flame that goes: 'out of his mouth' like a dragon. Isaiah 30:6 also talks of a 'fiery flying serpent'. Compare Revelation 20:2: , where an angel: 'laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years'.
### Rabbinic Judaism
In Judaism angels are created by God from fire. They fullfil tasks given by God. Rabbinic Judaism rejects earlier accounts on fallen angels who sinned by mating with humans. Instead, angels are servants of God. Still, not all angels are benevolent. Some angels are jealous of humans, because God loves them so much. Unlike angels, humans can overcome sin and repent. Angels cannot repent their sin, because they are already sinless.
When the Bible speaks about the creation of humans in the plural, Judaism sometimes argues that God discussed his decision with the angels. But they make clear, it is God alone who creates humans. God only wanted to discuss with the angels to show that someone in power, should still try to value the opinion of people lower.
### Islam
In Islam angels are created by God (referred to as Allah in the Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, and Dari languages) before jinn and humans. Some say, that before angels however, demons were created. Angels were created in heaven and fullfil God's orders. Some angels deliver messages to humans and prophets, most famous among them is Gabriel. Other angels support humans with rain. Some angels don't have a task on earth, but dwell in heaven, for example, to praise God.
Muslims disagree if angels can fail a task, but they agree that an angel never wants to disobey. Sometimes angels might simply make mistakes on accident, like the angels Harut and Marut. But these angels are not considered evil, they just lose their rank as punishment, but can restore their rank later again. Not all angels are nice. God gives angels violent tasks too. For example, God orders angels to punish people in hell, not demons. Muslims believe hell is under God's control, and not the demon's. They believe hell is not only suffering, but also justice. Angels watch out that people don't escape their punishment. While the benevolent angels are said to be created from light, some Muslims think the angels in hell are created from fire.
Muslims believe that angels are also present in life. They are, however, only in clean places. They are believed to give also good advises and blessings.
## In art
They are often shown in art as having wings and a halo. The wings represent their speed, and the halo represents their holiness.
The cherubim in art always appear as baby faced angels with very small, non-useful wings.
The cherubim statue or bronze casting of cherubim in the Temple of Solomon depicted them as two four winged creatures whose wings touched at the peak of the ark that they were making.
The same cherubim creatures were said to be cast in gold on top of the Ark of the Covenant. Casting metal is one of the oldest forms of artwork, and was attempted by Leonardo da Vinci.
## In literature
Angels are generally held to be holy and virtuous, hence the term is used loosely to apply to anyone particularly good or kind, or having a good influence. In his novel _Far From the Madding Crowd_, Thomas Hardy chooses the name of an angel, Gabriel, for his kind and helpful hero. On the other hand, in his play _Measure for Measure_, Shakespeare's use of the name Angelo is ironic, since Angelo is a character who likes to see himself as virtuous, but who is concealing evil aspects of his nature. Fallen angels, who are no longer holy or virtuous, are also known as devils.
However, since angels are held to be spirits (that is, non-material beings), medieval theologians were faced with the problem of how humans could see a non-physical creature. Eventually a theory was put forward that angels must make themselves a body out of the nearest thing to the non-physical, i.e. from air. Hence in his famous poem _Aire and Angels_, the seventeenth century metaphysical poet John Donne uses this idea to write a cynical comment on women, whose love, he says, is like an angel's body of air, while men's love is like the real thing, the angel itself.
## Idea of Guardian angel
From the era of the Romantics onwards, there has developed the widely held belief that everyone has an angel assigned to guard them. This concept is probably based on Jesus' comment in Matthew 18:10 regarding children, though it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible.
## In superstitions
Seeing repetitive numbers are thought to be associated with numerology, also referred to as angel numbers. It is believed that angels communicate with humans through repetitive appearances of numbers. Humanity has studied and used numbers since the dawn of time, and no matter what the culture is, there are certain numbers that hold specific value or meaning over other numbers.
## Related pages
- Demigod
|
medium
| false
| false
|
35
|
Ad hominem
|
**Ad hominem** is a Latin word for a type of [argument](30012). It is a word often used in [rhetoric](21758). Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your [idea](18603)s.
Translated to English, _ad hominem_ means _against the person_. In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are [attacking](316206) the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying.
The term comes from the Latin word _homo_, which means [human](502310). _Hominem_ is a [gender](5828) neutral version of the word _homo_. In ancient [Rome](2875) it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings.
Ad hominem can be a way to use [reputation](67893), [rumor](452655)s and [hearsay](1209236) to change the minds of other people listening. When a [social network](5431) has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often.
It is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In [court](7636)s and in [diplomacy](20491) ad hominems are not appreciated.
Ad hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted.
## What an ad hominem argument looks like
In [logic](4069), a proof is something that starts with [premise](312567)s, and goes through a few logical [argument](30012)s, to reach a conclusion.
### Normal (valid) proof
1. All [human](502310)s are mortal.
1. [Socrates](5128) is human.
1. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
### Ad hominem example
1. Person A thinks [abortion](13804) should be illegal.
1. Person A is uneducated and poor.
1. Therefore, abortion should not be illegal.
In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal.
## Related pages
- [Fallacy](20377) for a list of other types of (false) rhetorical arguments.
|
**Ad hominem** is a Latin word for a type of argument. It is a word often used in rhetoric. Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your ideas.
Translated to English, _ad hominem_ means _against the person_. In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are attacking the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying.
The term comes from the Latin word _homo_, which means human. _Hominem_ is a gender neutral version of the word _homo_. In ancient Rome it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings.
Ad hominem can be a way to use reputation, rumors and hearsay to change the minds of other people listening. When a social network has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often.
It is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In courts and in diplomacy ad hominems are not appreciated.
Ad hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted.
## What an ad hominem argument looks like
In logic, a proof is something that starts with premises, and goes through a few logical arguments, to reach a conclusion.
### Normal (valid) proof
1. All humans are mortal.
1. Socrates is human.
1. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
### Ad hominem example
1. Person A thinks abortion should be illegal.
1. Person A is uneducated and poor.
1. Therefore, abortion should not be illegal.
In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal.
## Related pages
- Fallacy for a list of other types of (false) rhetorical arguments.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
37
|
Native American
|
**Native Americans** (also called **Aboriginal Americans**, **American Indians**, **Amerindians**, or **Indigenous peoples of the Americas**) are the [indigenous peoples](64843) and their descendants, who were in the [Americas](227444) before the [Europeans](216) arrived.
## Name
The people are sometimes called **Indians**, but that may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from [India](391). When [Christopher Columbus](4635) explored the area, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the [Caribbean](15218) but thought he was in the East Indies and so he called the people Indians. Today, some think that it is [racism](130911) to use Indian for a Native American.
There are different Native American [tribes](16559), with many different [languages](419). Some tribes were [hunter-gatherers](101291) who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built [cities](144) and [kingdoms](9597). Many Native Americans died after the European [settlers](364467) came to the Americas. One reason is that [diseases](4874) came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were also [battles](43712) with the [Europeans](216). Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers, who took their lands.
## Origins
The ancestors of Native Americans came to the [Americas](227444) from [Asia](1994). Some of them may have come to the Americas 15,000 years ago, when [Alaska](3361) was connected to [Siberia](33186) by the Bering land bridge.
The earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the [Bering Strait](109714). The cold but mainly grassy plain, called [Beringia](216252), was a [land bridge](417039) that connected Siberia with Canada. It is believed that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum and that they moved into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). That would have occurred as the American [glaciers](34576) blocking the way southward melted but before the land bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP.
Before the [European colonization of the Americas](31687) and Russian expansion to the [Russian Far East](289910), Beringia was inhabited by the [Yupik](64036) peoples on both sides of the straits. The culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of [Russia](2964) and the [United States](219587) announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage." Among other things, the agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States, and Beringia National Park in Russia. Native Americans were divided into many small nations that are called called First Nations in Canada and [tribes](16559) in the United States.
## Culture
The Native American tribes have their own cultures, which can be grouped together by region. For example, the tribes living in [Mesoamerica](29352) have similar cultures.
### Food
Native Americans ate various food depending on where they lived. Native Americans from Mesoamerica introduced [vanilla](38627), [avocados](9442) and [chocolate](12300) to the world.
### Religion
Before Europeans came, the Native Americans practiced many different [religions](653). Each tribe had its own different beliefs. Many Native Americans now practice [Christianity](219595), a religion that was brought to the Americas by Europeans. Others, meanwhile, still practice their own religions.
### Languages
Native Americans speak over 1000 different languages. Some of these languages had writing systems before Europeans came. Many of these languages are [endangered](154920) because more people speak European languages and do not teach their children Native American languages.
### Music
Native Americans make musical instruments using the things around them.
### Art
Native Americans made many different kinds of art.
### North America
There are now more than three million Native Americans in [Canada](219589) and the [United States](219587) combined. About 51 million more Native Americans live in [Latin America](7170). Many Native Americans still speak native languages and have their own cultural practices, and others have adopted parts of American culture. Many Native Americans still face problems with [racism](130911).
#### United States
According to the [2010 United States Census](285730), 0.9% of Americans say that they are Native American, 2.9 million people, and 0.8% of Americans say they are both Native American and something else. They are not evenly spread out through the United States. About a third of the people in Alaska are Native Alaskan. and about a sixth of the people in [Oklahoma](14788) are Native American.
In the United States, most Native Americans live in cities. About 28% of Native Americans live on [Indian reservation](511335)s. Many Native Americans are poor, and 24% are extremely poor. The history of violence against Native Americans still persists in higher rates of violence against Native Americans than [whites](271006).
#### Mexico
Many Mexicans are of Native American or [mestizo](19081) ancestry. [Mexico](1935) has the largest and most diverse Native American population in Latin America.
#### Canada
In the 2016 census, more than 1.67 million people in Canada identified as Indigenous, making them 4.9 percent of Canada’s population.
#### Guatemala
About 40% of the people of [Guatemala](10298) identify as Native American. Many indigenous groups in the country are descendants of the [Maya](63545). Many Native Americans in Guatemala are poor. Many of them have left the country to find better jobs elsewhere.
#### Bolivia
Most people in [Bolivia](9289) belong to indigenous groups. Many of them are [Aymara](18033) and [Quechua](111171).
#### Peru
[Peru](2915) has a large indigenous population, around 80% of the country's population identifying as indigenous or mestizo.
## Indigenous activism
In the later half of the 20th century, many Native Americans protested the unfair treatment that they experienced from the societies in which they lived. Some Native Americans have become famous in politics. For example, an Aymara man. [Evo Morales](18073) was elected as president of Bolivia in 2005.
## Related pages
- First Nations
- [Plains Indians](545525)
- [Native Americans in the United States](107841)
## Infobox (ethnic group)
- **group**: Native Americans
- **image**: File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 013.jpg
- **image caption**: A picture of a man from the Gros Ventre tribe
- **total**: 70 million +
- **languages**: Indigenous languages of the Americas, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Dutch, Danish, French, Russian
|
**Native Americans** (also called **Aboriginal Americans**, **American Indians**, **Amerindians**, or **Indigenous peoples of the Americas**) are the indigenous peoples and their descendants, who were in the Americas before the Europeans arrived.
## Name
The people are sometimes called **Indians**, but that may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from India. When Christopher Columbus explored the area, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the Caribbean but thought he was in the East Indies and so he called the people Indians. Today, some think that it is racism to use Indian for a Native American.
There are different Native American tribes, with many different languages. Some tribes were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built cities and kingdoms. Many Native Americans died after the European settlers came to the Americas. One reason is that diseases came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were also battles with the Europeans. Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers, who took their lands.
## Origins
The ancestors of Native Americans came to the Americas from Asia. Some of them may have come to the Americas 15,000 years ago, when Alaska was connected to Siberia by the Bering land bridge.
The earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the Bering Strait. The cold but mainly grassy plain, called Beringia, was a land bridge that connected Siberia with Canada. It is believed that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum and that they moved into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). That would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted but before the land bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP.
Before the European colonization of the Americas and Russian expansion to the Russian Far East, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. The culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage." Among other things, the agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States, and Beringia National Park in Russia. Native Americans were divided into many small nations that are called called First Nations in Canada and tribes in the United States.
## Culture
The Native American tribes have their own cultures, which can be grouped together by region. For example, the tribes living in Mesoamerica have similar cultures.
### Food
Native Americans ate various food depending on where they lived. Native Americans from Mesoamerica introduced vanilla, avocados and chocolate to the world.
### Religion
Before Europeans came, the Native Americans practiced many different religions. Each tribe had its own different beliefs. Many Native Americans now practice Christianity, a religion that was brought to the Americas by Europeans. Others, meanwhile, still practice their own religions.
### Languages
Native Americans speak over 1000 different languages. Some of these languages had writing systems before Europeans came. Many of these languages are endangered because more people speak European languages and do not teach their children Native American languages.
### Music
Native Americans make musical instruments using the things around them.
### Art
Native Americans made many different kinds of art.
### North America
There are now more than three million Native Americans in Canada and the United States combined. About 51 million more Native Americans live in Latin America. Many Native Americans still speak native languages and have their own cultural practices, and others have adopted parts of American culture. Many Native Americans still face problems with racism.
#### United States
According to the 2010 United States Census, 0.9% of Americans say that they are Native American, 2.9 million people, and 0.8% of Americans say they are both Native American and something else. They are not evenly spread out through the United States. About a third of the people in Alaska are Native Alaskan. and about a sixth of the people in Oklahoma are Native American.
In the United States, most Native Americans live in cities. About 28% of Native Americans live on Indian reservations. Many Native Americans are poor, and 24% are extremely poor. The history of violence against Native Americans still persists in higher rates of violence against Native Americans than whites.
#### Mexico
Many Mexicans are of Native American or mestizo ancestry. Mexico has the largest and most diverse Native American population in Latin America.
#### Canada
In the 2016 census, more than 1.67 million people in Canada identified as Indigenous, making them 4.9 percent of Canada’s population.
#### Guatemala
About 40% of the people of Guatemala identify as Native American. Many indigenous groups in the country are descendants of the Maya. Many Native Americans in Guatemala are poor. Many of them have left the country to find better jobs elsewhere.
#### Bolivia
Most people in Bolivia belong to indigenous groups. Many of them are Aymara and Quechua.
#### Peru
Peru has a large indigenous population, around 80% of the country's population identifying as indigenous or mestizo.
## Indigenous activism
In the later half of the 20th century, many Native Americans protested the unfair treatment that they experienced from the societies in which they lived. Some Native Americans have become famous in politics. For example, an Aymara man. Evo Morales was elected as president of Bolivia in 2005.
## Related pages
- First Nations
- Plains Indians
- Native Americans in the United States
## Infobox (ethnic group)
- **group**: Native Americans
- **image**: File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 013.jpg
- **image caption**: A picture of a man from the Gros Ventre tribe
- **total**: 70 million +
- **languages**: Indigenous languages of the Americas, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Dutch, Danish, French, Russian
|
high
| false
| false
|
39
|
Apple
|
An **apple** is a sweet, edible [fruit](293) that is usually red or green. The tree (***[Malus](190009) spp.***) is grown worldwide. The fruit is low-cost, popular, and common all over the earth & taste is fruity.
The apple tree comes from southern [Kazakhstan](11232); [Kyrgyzstan](21874); [Uzbekistan](21532); [Turkey](6370); and northwestern part of [China](600). Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and in [European](4751) continent. They were brought to [North America](557) by [European](4751) [World](6369) Colonial settlers. Apples have Religious and mythological significance in many cultures.:.
Apples are generally grown by [grafting](378318), although wild apples grow readily from [seed](765). Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10,000 known variants of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different variants are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and [cider](14903) production are the most common uses. In addition to that, when it comes to food toxicity, the seeds in apples can be fatal, but only if they've been crushed. Apples contain amygdalin, which can release cyanide when digested. Apple seeds contain a chemical that can make cyanide, but the amount is too small to harm people who eat a few seeds.
Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, [bacteria](10861) and pests. In 2010, the fruit's [genome](70014) was [sequenced](231277) as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production.
Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. [China](120) grew 49% of the total.
## Botanical information
The apple tree is a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick [twig](253030)s.
The [leaves](16390) are [alternately arranged](656827) simple [oval](24379)s. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. [Blossom](31923)s come out in [spring](16382) at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The [flower](7947)s are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They have five [petal](114274)s, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in [diameter](9194). The fruit matures in [autumn](18860). It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a [star](3017) in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three [seed](765)s.
### Wild ancestors
The wild [ancestor](19655) of apple trees is _[Malus sieversii](1012798)_. They grow wild in the [mountain](3924)s of [Central Asia](29350) in the north of [Kazakhstan](11232), [Kyrgyzstan](21874), [Tajikistan](14171), and [Xinjiang](192788), [China](600), and possibly also _Malus sylvestris_. Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn. They are being used recently to develop _Malus domestica_ to grow in colder climates.
## History
The apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated. Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that [Alexander the Great](15035) of Greek civilisation discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. [Asia](1994) and [Europe](216) have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when [Europe](216)ans arrived, [Argentina](54) and the [United States](219587) have used apples as food as well. Apples were brought to [North America](557). The first apple [orchard](460929) on the North American continent was said to be near [Boston](253096) in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit [industries](166202), where the apple was a very important species, began developing.
### Paganism
In [Norse mythology](40357), the goddess [Iðunn](44998) gives apples to the gods in _Prose Edda_ (written in the 13th century by [Snorri Sturluson](96095)) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to [religious](653) practices in [Germanic paganism](104006). It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg [ship](5816) in [Norway](3460). She also remarks that fruit and [nuts](90793) (Iðunn having been described as changing into a nut in _Skáldskaparmál_) have been discovered in the early [grave](34418)s of the [Germanic peoples](47700) in [England](3047). They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of [Europe](216). She suggests that this may have had a [symbol](683)ic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of [fertility](69794) in Southwest [England](3047).
## Cooking
Sometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often, apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into [drink](3584)s. [Apple juice](19351) and apples [cider](14903) are drinks made with apples.
The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a [tool](158772) that removes the core, or by carefully using a [knife](6528).
The scientific name of the apple tree genus in the [Latin](6592) language is _Malus_. Most apples that people grow are of the _Malus domestica_ species.
Most apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as [apple pie](32267). Apples are cooked until they are soft to make [apple sauce](24431).
Apples are also made into the [drink](3584)s [apple juice](19351) and [cider](14903). Usually, cider contains a little [alcohol](132957), about as much as [beer](2020). The regions of [Brittany](28309) in [France](291) and [Cornwall](5227) in [England](3047) are known for their apple ciders.
## Apple variants
If one wants to grow a certain type of apple, it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have [DNA](4472) from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which might be a different variant of apple. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two, or a [hybrid](111603). In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will create apples of the type needed.
There are more than 7,500 known [variant](192065)s of apples. Different variants are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100 apple variants is at the National Fruit Collection in [England](3047). Most of these variants are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making [cider](14903). Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.
Most popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, '[Red Delicious](1238093)' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed. Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most [North America](557)ns and [Europe](216)ans enjoy sweet apples. Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in [Asia](1994) and India.
## World production
Apples are grown around the world. [China](120) produces more than half of all commercially grown apples. In 2020/2021, China produced 44,066,000 metric tons. Other important producers were the [European Union](2132) (11,719,000 metric tons), the [United States](219587) (4,490,000 metric tons), and [Turkey](2860) (4,300,000 metric tons). Total world production was 80,522,000 metric tons.
### In the United Kingdom
In the [United Kingdom](856) there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in [England](3047) is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple.
Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as [Common Ground](http://www.commonground.org.uk/) teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit.
### In North America
Many apples are grown in temperate parts of the [United States](219587) and [Canada](219589). "Washington State currently produces over half the Nation's domestically grown apples and has been the leading apple-growing State since the early 1920s." New York and Michigan are the next two leading states in apple production. "The total reported area dedicated to the crop in the United States is 336,940 acres or 526.47 square miles."
In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations:
- Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival - held five days every spring (May-June) in [Nova Scotia](11009)
- Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival - held six days every spring in [Winchester, Virginia](155520).
- Washington State Apple Blossom Festival - held two weeks every spring (April-May) in [Wenatchee, Washington](174889).
## Varieties of apples
There are many different varieties of apples, including
- [Aport](718128)
- Cox's Orange Pippin
- Fuji (apple)
- Gala
- Golden Delicious (sometimes called a Green Delicious Apple)
- [Granny Smith](201138)
- [Honeycrisp](253695)
- Jonathan
- [Jonagold](222120)
- McIntosh
- Pink Lady
- [Red Delicious](1238093)
- [Winesap](667548)
- [Honey crisp](253695)
## Family
Apples are in the group [Maloideae](45732). This is a subfamily of the family _[Rosaceae](46604)_. They are in the same subfamily as [pear](15721)s.
## Further reading
- Potter D. _et al_ 2007. Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae. _Plant Systematics and Evolution_. **266** (1–2): 5–43.
|
An **apple** is a sweet, edible fruit that is usually red or green. The tree (***Malus spp.***) is grown worldwide. The fruit is low-cost, popular, and common all over the earth & taste is fruity.
The apple tree comes from southern Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Uzbekistan; Turkey; and northwestern part of China. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and in European continent. They were brought to North America by European World Colonial settlers. Apples have Religious and mythological significance in many cultures.:.
Apples are generally grown by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10,000 known variants of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different variants are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses. In addition to that, when it comes to food toxicity, the seeds in apples can be fatal, but only if they've been crushed. Apples contain amygdalin, which can release cyanide when digested. Apple seeds contain a chemical that can make cyanide, but the amount is too small to harm people who eat a few seeds.
Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production.
Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total.
## Botanical information
The apple tree is a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs.
The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They have five petals, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn. It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a star in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three seeds.
### Wild ancestors
The wild ancestor of apple trees is _Malus sieversii_. They grow wild in the mountains of Central Asia in the north of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China, and possibly also _Malus sylvestris_. Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn. They are being used recently to develop _Malus domestica_ to grow in colder climates.
## History
The apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated. Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that Alexander the Great of Greek civilisation discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. Asia and Europe have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when Europeans arrived, Argentina and the United States have used apples as food as well. Apples were brought to North America. The first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit industries, where the apple was a very important species, began developing.
### Paganism
In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn gives apples to the gods in _Prose Edda_ (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to religious practices in Germanic paganism. It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg ship in Norway. She also remarks that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as changing into a nut in _Skáldskaparmál_) have been discovered in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England. They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of Europe. She suggests that this may have had a symbolic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of fertility in Southwest England.
## Cooking
Sometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often, apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into drinks. Apple juice and apples cider are drinks made with apples.
The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a tool that removes the core, or by carefully using a knife.
The scientific name of the apple tree genus in the Latin language is _Malus_. Most apples that people grow are of the _Malus domestica_ species.
Most apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as apple pie. Apples are cooked until they are soft to make apple sauce.
Apples are also made into the drinks apple juice and cider. Usually, cider contains a little alcohol, about as much as beer. The regions of Brittany in France and Cornwall in England are known for their apple ciders.
## Apple variants
If one wants to grow a certain type of apple, it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have DNA from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which might be a different variant of apple. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two, or a hybrid. In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will create apples of the type needed.
There are more than 7,500 known variants of apples. Different variants are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100 apple variants is at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these variants are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making cider. Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.
Most popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed. Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most North Americans and Europeans enjoy sweet apples. Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in Asia and India.
## World production
Apples are grown around the world. China produces more than half of all commercially grown apples. In 2020/2021, China produced 44,066,000 metric tons. Other important producers were the European Union (11,719,000 metric tons), the United States (4,490,000 metric tons), and Turkey (4,300,000 metric tons). Total world production was 80,522,000 metric tons.
### In the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple.
Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as Common Ground teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit.
### In North America
Many apples are grown in temperate parts of the United States and Canada. "Washington State currently produces over half the Nation's domestically grown apples and has been the leading apple-growing State since the early 1920s." New York and Michigan are the next two leading states in apple production. "The total reported area dedicated to the crop in the United States is 336,940 acres or 526.47 square miles."
In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations:
- Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival - held five days every spring (May-June) in Nova Scotia
- Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival - held six days every spring in Winchester, Virginia.
- Washington State Apple Blossom Festival - held two weeks every spring (April-May) in Wenatchee, Washington.
## Varieties of apples
There are many different varieties of apples, including
- Aport
- Cox's Orange Pippin
- Fuji (apple)
- Gala
- Golden Delicious (sometimes called a Green Delicious Apple)
- Granny Smith
- Honeycrisp
- Jonathan
- Jonagold
- McIntosh
- Pink Lady
- Red Delicious
- Winesap
- Honey crisp
## Family
Apples are in the group Maloideae. This is a subfamily of the family _Rosaceae_. They are in the same subfamily as pears.
## Further reading
- Potter D. _et al_ 2007. Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae. _Plant Systematics and Evolution_. **266** (1–2): 5–43.
|
high
| false
| false
|
43
|
Abrahamic religions
|
The **Abrahamic religions** are a group of religious communities of faith that claim descent from the [religion](219593) of the ancient [Israelites](9720) and the worship of the [God](95993) of [Abraham](24304). The Abrahamic religions are [monotheistic](12437). The term derives from patriarch [Abraham](24304), a major biblical figure from The [Hebrew Bible](80262). The major Abrahamic religions are [Christianity](219595), [Islam](219592) and [Judaism](219593).
## Religions
|Religion|Founded in|Claims descent from|Central symbol|Central scripture|Central figure|Adherents|Population|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Christianity|[1st century CE](24589)|[Isaac](118075) and [Joseph](11279)|Christian cross|Christian [Bible](2866)|[Jesus](219585)|[Christians](170)|2.4 [billion](467299)|
|Islam|[7th century CE](15637)|[Ishmael](48523)|[Star and crescent](146767)|[Qur'an](4449)|[Muhammad](12702)|[Muslims](7410)|1.9 billion|
|Judaism|[20th](342503)–[18th century BCE](342509)|Isaac and Joseph|[Star of David](62694)|Tanakh|[Moses](9714)|[Jews](39429)|14 [million](64775)|
|[Bahá'í Faith](18576)|[19th century CE](3978)|[Keturah](740381)'s children|9-pointed star|[Aqdas](378777)|[Bahá'ullah](44238)|Baha'is|10 million|
|[Druze](249350)|[11th century CE](15632)|Ishmael|Druze star|Hikmah|Hamza|Muwahhidun|5 million|
|Samaritanism|20th–18th century BCE|Isaac and Joseph||Pentateuch|Moses|[Samaritans](186692)|820 followers|
|[Rastafari](23185)|[20th century CE](3407)|[Haile Selassie](10481)|Lion of Judah|Christian Bible|Haile Selassie|Rastas|700,000|
|[Mormonism](14880)|19th century CE|[Joseph Smith](17056)|Christ leaving the tomb|Christian Bible and [The Book of Mormon](39315)|Jesus|Latter-Day Saints|17 million|
|[Mandaeism](137908)|4-6th century CE|[Shem](906082)|The Drabsha|The Ginza Rabba|[John the Baptist](29129)|Mandaens|60-100 thousand|
|
The **Abrahamic religions** are a group of religious communities of faith that claim descent from the religion of the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. The term derives from patriarch Abraham, a major biblical figure from The Hebrew Bible. The major Abrahamic religions are Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
## Religions
|Religion|Founded in|Claims descent from|Central symbol|Central scripture|Central figure|Adherents|Population|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Christianity|1st century CE|Isaac and Joseph|Christian cross|Christian Bible|Jesus|Christians|2.4 billion|
|Islam|7th century CE|Ishmael|Star and crescent|Qur'an|Muhammad|Muslims|1.9 billion|
|Judaism|20th–18th century BCE|Isaac and Joseph|Star of David|Tanakh|Moses|Jews|14 million|
|Bahá'í Faith|19th century CE|Keturah's children|9-pointed star|Aqdas|Bahá'ullah|Baha'is|10 million|
|Druze|11th century CE|Ishmael|Druze star|Hikmah|Hamza|Muwahhidun|5 million|
|Samaritanism|20th–18th century BCE|Isaac and Joseph||Pentateuch|Moses|Samaritans|820 followers|
|Rastafari|20th century CE|Haile Selassie|Lion of Judah|Christian Bible|Haile Selassie|Rastas|700,000|
|Mormonism|19th century CE|Joseph Smith|Christ leaving the tomb|Christian Bible and The Book of Mormon|Jesus|Latter-Day Saints|17 million|
|Mandaeism|4-6th century CE|Shem|The Drabsha|The Ginza Rabba|John the Baptist|Mandaens|60-100 thousand|
|
high
| false
| false
|
45
|
Algebra
|
**Algebra** (from [Arabic](8522): الجبر, transliterated "al-jabr", meaning "completion") is a part of [mathematics](467). It uses [variable](8460)s to represent a value that is not yet known or can be replaced with any value. When an [equals sign](90420) (=) is used, this is called an [equation](8335). A very simple equation using a variable is: . In this example, , or it could also be said that " equals five". This is called _solving for_ .
Besides equations, there are [inequalities](69120) (_less than_ and _greater than_). A special type of equation is called the function. This is often used in making [graph](6495)s because it always turns one input into one output.
Algebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. [Physics](591), [engineering](2816) and [computer programming](31531) are areas that use algebra all the time. It is also useful to know in [surveying](80823), [construction](63310) and [business](6642), especially [accounting](43136).
People who do algebra use the rules of [number](528)s and mathematical [operations](286359) used on numbers. The simplest are [adding](286359), [subtracting](286359), [multiplying](286359), and [dividing](286359). More advanced operations involve [exponent](286359)s, starting with [squares](65173) and square [root](286359)s.
Algebra was first used to solve [equations](341994) and [inequalities](69120). Two examples are [linear equation](280434)s (the equation of a straight line, or ) and [quadratic equation](47005)s, which has [variable](8460)s that are [squared](65173) (multiplied by itself, for example: , , or ).
## History
Early forms of algebra were developed by the [Babylon](33724)ians and [Greek](13444) [geometers](315) such as [Hero of Alexandria](393468). However the word "algebra" is a [Latin](6592) form of the [Arabic](8522) word _Al-Jabr_ ("casting") and comes from a mathematics book _Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah_, ("Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation") written in the [9th century](15635) by a [Persian](15621) mathematician, [Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī](6373), who was a [Muslim](7410) born in [Khwarizm](1233192) in [Uzbekistan](21532). He flourished under Al-Ma'moun in [Baghdad](7620), [Iraq](26175) through 813-833 CE, and died around 840 CE. The book was brought into [Europe](216) and [translated](4782) into [Latin](6592) in the [12th century](15592). The book was then given the name "_Algebra_". (The ending of the mathematician's name, al-Khwarizmi, was changed into a word easier to say in Latin, and became the [English](2843) word _[algorithm](170677)_).
## Examples
Here is a simple example of an algebra problem:
- Sue has 12 candies, and Ann has 24 candies. They decide to share so that they have the same number of candies. How many candies will each have?
These are the steps you can use to solve the problem:
1. To have the same number of candies, Ann has to give some to Sue. Let represent the number of candies Ann gives to Sue.
1. Sue's candies plus must be the same as Ann's candies minus __. This is written as:
1. Subtract 12 from both sides of the equation. This gives: . (What happens on one side of the equal sign must happen on the other side too, for the equation to still be true. So in this case when 12 was subtracted from both sides, there was a middle step of . After a person is comfortable with this, the middle step is not written down.)
1. Add to both sides of the equation. This gives:
1. Divide both sides of the equation by 2. This gives . The answer is six. This means that if Ann gives Sue 6 candies, they will have the same number of candies.
1. To check this, put 6 back into the original equation wherever was:
1. This gives , which is true. They each now have 18 candies.
With practice, algebra can be used when faced with a problem that is too hard to solve any other way. Problems such as building a freeway, designing a cell phone, or finding the cure for a disease all require algebra.
## Writing algebra
As in most parts of [mathematics](467), [adding](286359) to (or plus ) is written as ;
[subtracting](286359) from (or minus ) is written as ;
and [dividing](286359) by (or over ) is written as or .
In algebra, multiplying by (or times ) can be written in 3 different ways: , or just . All of these notations mean the same thing: times . The symbol "" used in arithmetic is not used in algebra, because it looks too much like the letter , which is often used as a variable.
When we multiply a [number](528) and a [variable](8460) in algebra, we can simply write the number in front of the letter: . When the number is 1, then it is not written because 1 times any number is that number () and so it is not needed. And when it is 0, we can completely remove the terms, because 0 times any number is zero ().
As a side note, you do not have to use the letters or in algebra. Variables are just symbols that mean some unknown number or value, so you can use any letter for a variable (except ([Euler's number](45060)) and ([Imaginary unit](35853)), because these are [mathematical constant](12427)s). and are the most common, though.
## Functions and Graphs
An important part of algebra is the study of [functions](15006), since they often appear in equations that we are trying to solve. A function is like a machine you can put a [number](528) (or numbers) into and get a certain number (or numbers) out. When using functions, [graph](6495)s can be powerful tools in helping us to study the solutions to equations.
A graph is a picture that shows all the values of the variables that make the equation or inequality true. Usually this is easy to make when there are only one or two variables. The graph is often a [line](4373), and if the line does not bend or go straight up-and-down it can be described by the basic formula . The variable is the [y-intercept](21041) of the graph (where the line crosses the vertical axis) and is the slope or steepness of the line. This formula applies to the [coordinates](51720) of a graph, where each [point](4372) on the line is written .
In some math problems like the equation for a line, there can be more than one variable ( and in this case). To find points on the line, one variable is changed. The variable that is changed is called the "independent" variable. Then the math is done to make a number. The number that is made is called the "dependent" variable. Most of the time the independent variable is written as and the dependent variable is written as , for example, in . This is often put on a graph, using an axis (going left and right) and a axis (going up and down). It can also be written in function form: . So in this example, we could put in 5 for and get . Put in 2 for would get . And 0 for would get . So there would be a line going through the points , , and as seen in the graph to the right.
If has a power of 1, it is a straight line. If it is squared or some other power, it will be curved. If it uses an inequality ( or ), then usually part of the graph is shaded, either above or below the line.
## Rules
In algebra, there are a few rules that can be used for further understanding of equations. These are called the rules of algebra. While these rules may seem senseless or obvious, it is wise to understand that these properties do not hold throughout all branches of mathematics. Therefore, it will be useful to know how these axiomatic rules are declared, before taking them for granted. Before going on to the rules, reflect on two definitions that will be given.
1. Opposite: the [opposite](286359) of is .
1. Reciprocal: the [reciprocal](286359) of is .
### Commutative property of addition
_[Commutative](247265)_ means that a function has the same result if the numbers are swapped around. In other words, the order of the terms in an equation does not matter. When two terms (addends) are being added, the _commutative property of addition_ is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives .
Note that this does not apply for [subtraction](733) (i.e. except if ).
### Commutative property of multiplication
When two terms (factors) are being multiplied, the _commutative property of multiplication_ is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives .
Note that this does not apply for division (i.e. , when and , except if ).
### Associative property of addition
_[Associative](123853)_ refers to the grouping of numbers. The associative property of addition implies that, when adding three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for subtraction, e.g. (see [distributive property](527671)).
### Associative property of multiplication
The associative property of [multiplication](482) implies that, when multiplying three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for division, e.g. .
### Distributive property
The distributive property states that the multiplication of a term by another term can be distributed. For instance: . (Do not confuse this with the associative properties! For instance: .)
### Additive identity
_[Identity](710114)_ refers to the property of a number that it is equal to itself. In other words, there exists an operation of two numbers so that it equals the variable of the sum. The additive identity property states that any number plus 0 is that number: . This also holds for subtraction: .
### Multiplicative identity
The multiplicative identity property states that any number times 1 is that number: . This also holds for division: .
### Additive inverse property
The additive inverse property is somewhat like the inverse of the additive identity. When we add a number and its opposite, the result is 0. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the additive inverse (or opposite) of 1 is -1.
### Multiplicative inverse property
The multiplicative inverse property means that when we multiply a number and its reciprocal, the result is 1. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of 2 is 1/2. To get the reciprocal of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator: the reciprocal of is .
## Advanced Algebra
In addition to "[elementary algebra](33242)", or basic algebra, there are advanced forms of algebra, taught in colleges and universities, such as [abstract algebra](46328), [linear algebra](459), and universal algebra. This includes how to use a [matrix](5398) to solve many [linear equation](280434)s at once. [Abstract algebra](46328) is the study of things that are found in equations, going beyond numbers to the more abstract with groups of numbers.
Many math problems are about [physics](591) and [engineering](2816). In many of these physics problems [time](3219) is a variable. The letter used for time is . Using the basic ideas in algebra can help reduce a math problem to its simplest form making it easier to solve difficult problems. Energy is , force is , mass is , acceleration is and [speed of light](4322) is sometimes . This is used in some famous equations, like and (although more complex math beyond algebra was needed to come up with that last equation).
## Related pages
- [List of mathematics topics](448)
- [Order of operations](40646)
- [Parabola](294426)
- [Computer Algebra System](233141)
## Other websites
- [Khan Academy: Algebra theory and practice](https://khanacademy.org/math/algebra)
- [algebrarules.com: A free place to learn the basics of Algebra](https://algebrarules.com)
- [Khan Academy: Origins of Algebra, free online micro lectures](https://khanacademy.org/math/algebra/introduction-to-algebra/overview_hist_alg/v/origins-of-algebra)
|
**Algebra** (from Arabic: الجبر, transliterated "al-jabr", meaning "completion") is a part of mathematics. It uses variables to represent a value that is not yet known or can be replaced with any value. When an equals sign (=) is used, this is called an equation. A very simple equation using a variable is: . In this example, , or it could also be said that " equals five". This is called _solving for_ .
Besides equations, there are inequalities (_less than_ and _greater than_). A special type of equation is called the function. This is often used in making graphs because it always turns one input into one output.
Algebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. Physics, engineering and computer programming are areas that use algebra all the time. It is also useful to know in surveying, construction and business, especially accounting.
People who do algebra use the rules of numbers and mathematical operations used on numbers. The simplest are adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. More advanced operations involve exponents, starting with squares and square roots.
Algebra was first used to solve equations and inequalities. Two examples are linear equations (the equation of a straight line, or ) and quadratic equations, which has variables that are squared (multiplied by itself, for example: , , or ).
## History
Early forms of algebra were developed by the Babylonians and Greek geometers such as Hero of Alexandria. However the word "algebra" is a Latin form of the Arabic word _Al-Jabr_ ("casting") and comes from a mathematics book _Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah_, ("Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation") written in the 9th century by a Persian mathematician, Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, who was a Muslim born in Khwarizm in Uzbekistan. He flourished under Al-Ma'moun in Baghdad, Iraq through 813-833 CE, and died around 840 CE. The book was brought into Europe and translated into Latin in the 12th century. The book was then given the name "_Algebra_". (The ending of the mathematician's name, al-Khwarizmi, was changed into a word easier to say in Latin, and became the English word _algorithm_).
## Examples
Here is a simple example of an algebra problem:
- Sue has 12 candies, and Ann has 24 candies. They decide to share so that they have the same number of candies. How many candies will each have?
These are the steps you can use to solve the problem:
1. To have the same number of candies, Ann has to give some to Sue. Let represent the number of candies Ann gives to Sue.
1. Sue's candies plus must be the same as Ann's candies minus __. This is written as:
1. Subtract 12 from both sides of the equation. This gives: . (What happens on one side of the equal sign must happen on the other side too, for the equation to still be true. So in this case when 12 was subtracted from both sides, there was a middle step of . After a person is comfortable with this, the middle step is not written down.)
1. Add to both sides of the equation. This gives:
1. Divide both sides of the equation by 2. This gives . The answer is six. This means that if Ann gives Sue 6 candies, they will have the same number of candies.
1. To check this, put 6 back into the original equation wherever was:
1. This gives , which is true. They each now have 18 candies.
With practice, algebra can be used when faced with a problem that is too hard to solve any other way. Problems such as building a freeway, designing a cell phone, or finding the cure for a disease all require algebra.
## Writing algebra
As in most parts of mathematics, adding to (or plus ) is written as ;
subtracting from (or minus ) is written as ;
and dividing by (or over ) is written as or .
In algebra, multiplying by (or times ) can be written in 3 different ways: , or just . All of these notations mean the same thing: times . The symbol "" used in arithmetic is not used in algebra, because it looks too much like the letter , which is often used as a variable.
When we multiply a number and a variable in algebra, we can simply write the number in front of the letter: . When the number is 1, then it is not written because 1 times any number is that number () and so it is not needed. And when it is 0, we can completely remove the terms, because 0 times any number is zero ().
As a side note, you do not have to use the letters or in algebra. Variables are just symbols that mean some unknown number or value, so you can use any letter for a variable (except (Euler's number) and (Imaginary unit), because these are mathematical constants). and are the most common, though.
## Functions and Graphs
An important part of algebra is the study of functions, since they often appear in equations that we are trying to solve. A function is like a machine you can put a number (or numbers) into and get a certain number (or numbers) out. When using functions, graphs can be powerful tools in helping us to study the solutions to equations.
A graph is a picture that shows all the values of the variables that make the equation or inequality true. Usually this is easy to make when there are only one or two variables. The graph is often a line, and if the line does not bend or go straight up-and-down it can be described by the basic formula . The variable is the y-intercept of the graph (where the line crosses the vertical axis) and is the slope or steepness of the line. This formula applies to the coordinates of a graph, where each point on the line is written .
In some math problems like the equation for a line, there can be more than one variable ( and in this case). To find points on the line, one variable is changed. The variable that is changed is called the "independent" variable. Then the math is done to make a number. The number that is made is called the "dependent" variable. Most of the time the independent variable is written as and the dependent variable is written as , for example, in . This is often put on a graph, using an axis (going left and right) and a axis (going up and down). It can also be written in function form: . So in this example, we could put in 5 for and get . Put in 2 for would get . And 0 for would get . So there would be a line going through the points , , and as seen in the graph to the right.
If has a power of 1, it is a straight line. If it is squared or some other power, it will be curved. If it uses an inequality ( or ), then usually part of the graph is shaded, either above or below the line.
## Rules
In algebra, there are a few rules that can be used for further understanding of equations. These are called the rules of algebra. While these rules may seem senseless or obvious, it is wise to understand that these properties do not hold throughout all branches of mathematics. Therefore, it will be useful to know how these axiomatic rules are declared, before taking them for granted. Before going on to the rules, reflect on two definitions that will be given.
1. Opposite: the opposite of is .
1. Reciprocal: the reciprocal of is .
### Commutative property of addition
_Commutative_ means that a function has the same result if the numbers are swapped around. In other words, the order of the terms in an equation does not matter. When two terms (addends) are being added, the _commutative property of addition_ is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives .
Note that this does not apply for subtraction (i.e. except if ).
### Commutative property of multiplication
When two terms (factors) are being multiplied, the _commutative property of multiplication_ is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives .
Note that this does not apply for division (i.e. , when and , except if ).
### Associative property of addition
_Associative_ refers to the grouping of numbers. The associative property of addition implies that, when adding three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for subtraction, e.g. (see distributive property).
### Associative property of multiplication
The associative property of multiplication implies that, when multiplying three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for division, e.g. .
### Distributive property
The distributive property states that the multiplication of a term by another term can be distributed. For instance: . (Do not confuse this with the associative properties! For instance: .)
### Additive identity
_Identity_ refers to the property of a number that it is equal to itself. In other words, there exists an operation of two numbers so that it equals the variable of the sum. The additive identity property states that any number plus 0 is that number: . This also holds for subtraction: .
### Multiplicative identity
The multiplicative identity property states that any number times 1 is that number: . This also holds for division: .
### Additive inverse property
The additive inverse property is somewhat like the inverse of the additive identity. When we add a number and its opposite, the result is 0. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the additive inverse (or opposite) of 1 is -1.
### Multiplicative inverse property
The multiplicative inverse property means that when we multiply a number and its reciprocal, the result is 1. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of 2 is 1/2. To get the reciprocal of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator: the reciprocal of is .
## Advanced Algebra
In addition to "elementary algebra", or basic algebra, there are advanced forms of algebra, taught in colleges and universities, such as abstract algebra, linear algebra, and universal algebra. This includes how to use a matrix to solve many linear equations at once. Abstract algebra is the study of things that are found in equations, going beyond numbers to the more abstract with groups of numbers.
Many math problems are about physics and engineering. In many of these physics problems time is a variable. The letter used for time is . Using the basic ideas in algebra can help reduce a math problem to its simplest form making it easier to solve difficult problems. Energy is , force is , mass is , acceleration is and speed of light is sometimes . This is used in some famous equations, like and (although more complex math beyond algebra was needed to come up with that last equation).
## Related pages
- List of mathematics topics
- Order of operations
- Parabola
- Computer Algebra System
## Other websites
- Khan Academy: Algebra theory and practice
- algebrarules.com: A free place to learn the basics of Algebra
- Khan Academy: Origins of Algebra, free online micro lectures
|
high
| false
| false
|
47
|
Atom
|
An **atom** is an extremely small piece of [matter](50759). All normal matter – everything that has [mass](513) – is made of atoms. This includes [solid](4058)s, [liquid](7870)s, and [gas](3283)es. The atom cannot be broken to parts by [chemistry](108), so people once thought it was the smallest piece of matter that could exist. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts.
Atoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human [hair](359). This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. [Scientist](748)s learn how they work by doing [experiment](224)s.
Atoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are [proton](9526)s, [neutron](16913)s, and [electron](4006)s. Protons and neutrons have much more [mass](513). These are in the middle of the atom, called the [nucleus](111794). Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together.
Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the same [chemical element](247). Examples of elements are [carbon](4887) and [gold](3260). Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called [isotope](3489)s. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an [ion](2099), and has an electric charge.
Atoms can join by [chemical bond](42963)s. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are [chemical compound](6101)s or [mixture](3257)s. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a [molecule](520). For example, a [water](939) molecule is made of two [hydrogen](355) atoms and one [oxygen](2949) atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a [chemical reaction](4891).
Atoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a [star](3017). These changes are studied in [nuclear physics](29348). Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom.
## History
The word "atom" comes from the [Greek](4606) (ἀτόμος) "atomos", which means _indivisible_ or _uncuttable_. One of the first people to use the word "atom" is the Greek [philosopher](590) [Democritus](132928), around 400 <small>BC</small>. He thought that everything was made of [particle](13990)s called atoms, which could not be divided into smaller pieces. Some Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist philosophers also had ideas like this. Atomic theory was a mostly [philosophical](590) subject, with not much [scientific](700) investigation or study, until the early 1800s.
In 1777 [French](291) chemist [Antoine Lavoisier](215781) defined the term _element_ as we now use it. He said that an [element](247) was any substance that could not be broken down into other substances by the methods of [chemistry](108). Any substance which could be broken down was a _[compound](6101)_.
In 1803, [English](3047) philosopher [John Dalton](33273) suggested that elements were made of tiny, solid balls called atoms. Dalton believed that all atoms of the same element have the same [mass](513). He said that compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. In any one compound, the atoms would always combine in the same numbers.
In 1827, British scientist [Robert Brown](693472) looked at [pollen](132196) grains in water under his microscope. The pollen grains appeared to be shaking. Brown used Dalton's atomic theory to describe patterns in how they moved. This was called _[Brownian motion](415677)_. In 1905 Albert Einstein used mathematics to prove that the pollen particles were being moved by the motion, or heat, of individual water molecules. By doing this, he proved that atoms are real without question.
In 1869, Russian scientist [Dmitri Mendeleev](48401) published the first [periodic table](637). The periodic table groups elements by their [atomic number](8407) (how many [proton](9526)s they have; this is usually the same as the number of [electron](4006)s). Elements in the same column, or group, usually have similar qualities. For example, [helium](357), [neon](19782), [argon](2126), [krypton](19787), and [xenon](4317) are all in the same column and are very similar. All these elements are [gas](3283)es that have no color or smell. Also, they cannot combine with other atoms to form compounds. Together they are known as [noble gas](19788)es.
The physicist J.J. Thomson was the first person to discover electrons. This happened while he was working with [cathode ray](224919)s in 1897. He learned they had a negative [charge](9345), and the rest of the atom had a positive charge. Thomson made the [plum pudding model](599299), which said that an atom was like plum pudding: the dried fruit (electrons) were stuck in a mass of pudding (having a positive charge).
In 1909, [Ernest Rutherford](28498) used the [Geiger–Marsden experiment](299555) to prove that most of an atom is in a very small space, the [atomic nucleus](111794). Rutherford took a photo plate and covered it with gold foil. He then shot [alpha particles](177079) (made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together) at it. Many of the particles went through the gold foil, which proved that atoms are mostly empty space. Electrons are so small and fast-moving that they did not block the particles from going through. Rutherford later discovered [proton](9526)s in the nucleus.
In 1913, [Niels Bohr](54370) created the [Bohr model](355945). This model showed that electrons travel around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. This was better than the Rutherford model, but it was still not completely true.
In 1925, chemist [Frederick Soddy](216110) discovered that some elements had more than one kind of atom, called [isotope](3489)s. Soddy believed that each different isotope of an element has a different mass. To prove this, chemist [Francis William Aston](981304) built the mass spectrometer, which measures the mass of single atoms. Aston proved that Soddy was right. He also found that the mass of each atom is a whole number times the mass of the proton. This meant that there must be some particles in the nucleus other than protons. In 1932, physicist [James Chadwick](71140) shot alpha particles at beryllium atoms. He saw that a particle shot out of the beryllium atoms. This particle had no charge, but about the same mass as a proton. He named this particle the [neutron](16913).
The best model so far comes from the [Schrödinger equation](22138). Schrödinger learned that the electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, called the [electron cloud](71267). In the electron cloud, it is impossible to know exactly where electrons are. The Schrödinger equation says where an electron is likely to be. This area is called the electron's [orbital](80857).
In 1937, [German](219828) chemist [Otto Hahn](245628) became the first person to make [nuclear fission](8061) in a laboratory. He discovered this by chance when shooting neutrons at a [uranium](19146) atom, hoping to make a new isotope. However, instead of a new isotope, the uranium changed into a [barium](20208) atom, a smaller atom than uranium. Hahn had "broken" the uranium atom. This was the world's first recorded nuclear fission reaction. This discovery led to the creation of the atomic bomb and [nuclear power](45760), where fission happens over and over again, creating a chain reaction.
Later in the 20th century, physicists went deeper into the mysteries of the atom. Using [particle accelerator](137042)s, they discovered that protons and neutrons were made of other particles, called quarks.
### Parts
An atom is made of three main [particle](13990)s: the [proton](9526), the [neutron](16913), and the [electron](4006). Protons and neutrons have nearly the same size and mass (about [gram](21343)s). The mass of an electron is about 1800 times smaller (about grams). Protons have a positive [charge](9345), electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge. Most atoms have no charge. The number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are the same, so the charges balance out to zero. However, [ion](2099)s have a different number of electrons than protons, so they have a positive or negative charge.
Scientists believe that electrons are [elementary particle](43022)s: they are not made of any smaller pieces. Protons and neutrons are made of [quark](6828)s of two kinds: up quarks and down quarks. A proton is made of two up quarks and one [down quark](275447), and a neutron is made of two down quarks and one [up quark](275432).
### Nucleus
The nucleus is in the middle of the atom. It is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus makes up more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. However, it is very small: about 1 femtometer (10<sup>−15</sup> m) across, which is around 100,000 times smaller than the width of an atom, so it has a very high [density](21342).
Usually in nature, two things with the same charge repel or shoot away from each other. So for a long time, scientists did not know how the positively charged protons in the nucleus stayed together. We now believe that the attraction between protons and neutrons comes from the _strong nuclear force_. This force also holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. Particles called [meson](273469)s travel back and forth between protons and neutrons, and carry the force.
The number of neutrons in relation to protons defines whether the nucleus stays together or goes through [radioactive decay](28153). When there are too many neutrons or protons, the atom tries to make the numbers smaller or more equal by removing the extra particles. It sends out radiation in the form of [alpha](177079), [beta](171227), or [gamma](1079341) decay. Nuclei can also change in other ways. [Nuclear fission](8061) is when the nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei, releasing a lot of [energy](4115). This release of energy makes nuclear fission useful for making [bomb](50504)s, and [electricity](7163) in the form of [nuclear power](45760).
The other way nuclei can change is through [nuclear fusion](28699), when two nuclei join or fuse to make a larger nucleus. This process requires very high amounts of energy to overcome the electric repulsion between the protons, as they have the same charge. Such high energies are most common in [star](3017)s like our [Sun](44408), which fuses hydrogen for fuel. However, once fusion happens, far more energy is released, because some of the mass becomes energy.
The energy needed to break a nucleus into protons and neutrons is called its [nuclear binding energy](949041). This energy can be converted to mass, as stated by Einstein's famous formula _E_ = _mc_<sup>2</sup>. Medium-sized nuclei, such as [iron](223080)-56 and [nickel](24207)-62, have the highest binding energy per proton or neutron. They will probably not go through fission or fusion, because they cannot release energy in this way. Very small and very large atoms have low binding energy, so they are most willing to go through fission or fusion.
### Electrons
Electrons orbit, or travel around, the nucleus. They are called the atom's _[electron cloud](71267)_. They are attracted to the nucleus because of the [electromagnetic force](27976). Electrons have a negative charge, and the nucleus always has a positive charge, so they attract each other.
The [Bohr model](355945) shows that some electrons are farther from the nucleus than others in different levels. These are called _[electron shell](59420)s_. Only the electrons in the outer shell can make chemical bonds. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines whether the atom is stable or which atoms it will bond with in a [chemical reaction](4891). If an atom has only one shell, it needs two electrons to be complete. Otherwise, the outer shell needs eight electrons to be complete.
The Bohr model is important because it has the idea of [energy level](111792)s. The electrons in each shell have a certain amount of energy. Shells that are farther from the nucleus have more energy. When a small burst of energy called a [photon](3661) hits an electron, the electron can jump into a _higher-energy_ shell. This photon must carry exactly the right amount of energy to bring the electron to the new energy level. A photon is a burst of light, and the amount of energy determines the color of light. So each kind of atom will absorb certain colors of light, called the absorption spectrum. An electron can also send out, or emit, a photon, and fall into a _lower energy_ shell. For the same reason, the atom will only send out certain colors of light, called the [emission spectrum](171924).
The complete picture is more complicated. Unlike the Earth moving around the Sun, electrons do not move in a circle. We cannot know the exact place of an electron. We only know the [probability](631), or chance, that it will be in any place. Each electron is part of an _[orbital](80857)_, which describes where it is likely to be. No more than two electrons can be in one orbital; these two electrons have different _[spin](43029)_.
For each shell, numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, there may be a number of different orbitals. These have different shapes, or point in different directions. Each orbital can be described by its three _[quantum number](824080)s_. The _principal quantum number_ is the electron shell number. The _azimuthal quantum number_ is represented by a letter: s, p, d, or f. Depending on the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers, the electron can have more or less energy. There is also a _magnetic quantum number_, but it does not usually affect the energy level. As more electrons are added, they join orbitals in order from lowest to highest energy. This order starts as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. For example, a [chlorine](19375) atom has 17 electrons. So, it will have:
- 2 electrons in the 1s orbital
- 2 electrons in the 2s orbital
- 6 electrons in the 2p orbitals
- 2 electrons in the 3s orbital
- 5 electrons in the 3p orbitals
In other words, it has 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the third shell.
### Atomic number
The number of protons in an atom is called its _[atomic number](8407)_. Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, so the atomic number of carbon is six. Today, 118 elements are known. Depending on how the number is counted, 90 to 94 elements exist naturally on earth. All elements above number 94 have only been made by humans. These elements are organized on the [periodic table](637).
### Atomic mass and weight
Because protons and neutrons have nearly the same [mass](513), and the mass of electrons is very small, we can call the number of protons and neutrons in an atom its _[mass number](198226)_. Most elements have several isotopes with different mass numbers. To name an isotope, we use the name of the element, followed by its mass number. So an atom with six protons and seven neutrons is called carbon-13.
Sometimes, we need a more exact measurement. The exact mass of an atom is called its _[atomic mass](21424)_. This is usually measured with the atomic mass unit (amu), also called the dalton. One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is [gram](21343)s. Hydrogen-1 has a mass of about 1 amu. The heaviest atom known, [oganesson](656129), has a mass of about 294 amu, or grams. The average mass of all atoms of a particular element is called its _atomic weight_.
### Size
The size of an atom depends on the size of its electron cloud. Moving down the periodic table, more electron shells are added. As a result, atoms get bigger. Moving to the right on the periodic table, more protons are added to the nucleus. This more positive nucleus pulls electrons more strongly, so atoms get smaller. The biggest atom is [caesium](20206), which is about 0.596 nanometers wide according to one model. The smallest atom is [helium](357), which is about 0.062 nanometers wide.
### How atoms interact
When atoms are far apart, they attract each other. This attraction is stronger for some kinds of atoms than others. At the same time, the heat, or [kinetic energy](5813), of atoms makes them always move. If the attraction is strong enough, relative to the amount of heat, atoms will form a [solid](4058). If the attraction is weaker, they will form a [liquid](7870), and if it is even weaker, they will form a [gas](3283).
[Chemical bond](42963)s are the strongest kinds of attraction between atoms. The movement of electrons explains all chemical bonds.
Atoms usually bond with each other in a way that fills or empties their outer electron shell. The most reactive elements have an almost full or almost empty outer shell. Atoms with a full outer shell, called [noble gas](19788)es, do not usually form bonds.
There are three main kinds of bonds: [ionic bond](38077)s, [covalent bond](38073)s, and [metallic bond](54960)s.
- In an ionic bond, one atom gives electrons to another atom. Each atom becomes an [ion](2099): an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge. The positive ion (which has lost electrons) is called a [cation](632038); it is usually a [metal](3332). The negative ion (which has gained electrons) is called an [anion](26704); it is usually a [nonmetal](16427). Ionic bonding usually results in a regular network, or [crystal](40649), of ions held together.
- In a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons. This usually happens when both atoms are nonmetals. Covalent bonds often form [molecule](520)s, ranging in size from two atoms to many more. They can also form large networks, such as [glass](304) or [graphite](38066). The number of bonds that an atom makes (its [valency](52252)) is usually the number of electrons needed to fill its outer electron shell.
- In a metallic bond, electrons travel freely between many metal atoms. Any number of atoms can bond this way. Metals conduct [electric current](28112) because electric charge can easily flow through them. Atoms in metals can move past each other, so it is easy to bend, stretch, and change the shape of metals.
All atoms attract each other by [Van der Waals force](338581)s. These forces are weaker than chemical bonds. They are caused when electrons move to one side of an atom. This movement gives a negative charge to that side. It also gives a positive charge to the other side. When two atoms line up their sides with negative and positive charges, they will attract.
Although atoms are mostly empty space, they cannot pass through each other. When two atoms are very close, their electron clouds will repel each other by the electromagnetic force.
### Magnetism
To understand how [magnet](22592)s work, we can look at the properties of the atom. Any magnet has a north and south pole, and a certain strength. The direction and strength of a magnet, together, are called its [magnetic moment](321437). Every electron also has a magnetic moment, like a tiny magnet. This comes from the electron's [spin](43029) and its orbit around the nucleus. The magnetic moments for the electrons add up to a magnetic moment for the whole atom. This tells us how atoms act in a [magnetic field](29209).
Every electron has one of two opposite spins. We can think of one as turning to the right, and the other as turning to the left. If every electron is paired with an electron with the opposite spin in the same [orbital](80857), the magnetic moments will cancel out to zero. Atoms like this are called diamagnetic. They are only weakly repelled by a magnetic field.
However, if some electrons are not paired, the atom will have a lasting magnetic moment: it will be paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. When atoms are paramagnetic, the magnetic moment of each atom points in a random direction. They are weakly attracted to a magnetic field. When atoms are ferromagnetic, the magnetic moments of nearby atoms act on each other. They point in the same direction. This means that the whole object is a magnet, and it can point in the direction of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, are strongly attracted to a magnetic field.
### Radioactive decay
Some elements, and many isotopes, have what is called an _unstable nucleus_. This means the nucleus is either too big to hold itself together, or it has too many protons or neutrons. When a nucleus is unstable, it has to eliminate the excess mass of particles. It does this through [radiation](55918). An atom that does this is called _radioactive_. Unstable atoms emit radiation until they lose enough particles in the nucleus to become stable. All atoms above atomic number 82 (82 protons, lead) are radioactive.
There are three main kinds of radioactive decay: alpha, [beta](171226), and [gamma](1079341).
- Alpha decay is when the atom shoots out a particle having two protons and two neutrons. This is a [helium](357)-4 nucleus. The result is an element with an atomic number of two less than before. So, for example, if a [uranium](19146) atom (atomic number 92) went through alpha decay, it would become [thorium](42951) (atomic number 90). Alpha decay happens when an atom is too big and needs to lose some mass.
- [Beta decay](171226) is when a neutron turns into a proton, or a proton turns into a neutron. In the first case, the atom shoots out an electron. In the second case, it shoots out a [positron](78402) (like an electron but with a positive charge). The result is an element with one higher or one lower atomic number than before. Beta decay happens when an atom has either too many protons or too many neutrons.
- [Gamma decay](1079341) is when an atom shoots out a [gamma ray](1079341), or wave. It happens when there is a change in the [energy](4115) of the nucleus. This is usually after a nucleus has gone through alpha or beta decay. There is no change in the atom's mass, or atomic number, only in the stored energy inside the nucleus, in the form of particle spin.
Every radioactive element or isotope has a _half-life_. This is how long it takes half of any sample of atoms of that type to decay into a different isotope or element.
## Creation of atoms
Nearly all the hydrogen atoms in the [Universe](858), most of the helium atoms, and some of the lithium atoms were made soon after the [Big Bang](4484). Even today, about 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.
All other atoms come from [nuclear fusion in stars](796271), or sometimes from [cosmic ray](241923)s that hit atoms. At the start of their life, all stars fuse hydrogen to make helium. The least massive stars, [red dwarf](57637)s, are expected to stop there. All other stars will then fuse helium to make carbon and oxygen. In stars like the Sun, the temperature and pressure are too low to make larger atoms. But more massive stars continue fusion, until they create iron (atomic number 26) or nickel (atomic number 28). Atoms can also grow larger when neutrons or protons hit them. This could happen inside stars or in [supernova](24914)e. Most atoms on Earth were made by a star that existed before the Sun.
People make very large atoms by smashing together smaller atoms in [particle accelerator](137042)s. However, these atoms often decay very quickly. [Oganesson](656129) (element 118) has a half-life of 0.00089 seconds. Even larger atoms may be created in the future.
## Related pages
- [Atomic physics](350758), for more detail about the physics of atoms
- [Atomic theory](30129), for more detail about the history
- [Chemical element](247), each kind of atom
- [Exotic atom](599298), an atom with different parts instead of protons, neutrons, and electrons
- [Quantum mechanics](7136), the study of small particles and how they interact with energy
- [States of matter](3325), the different forms in which atoms or molecules can be found
## Other websites
- [Atom (science) -Citizendium](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Atom_(science))
- [General information on atomic structure](http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/3-atoms.htm)
## Infobox (atom)
|
An **atom** is an extremely small piece of matter. All normal matter – everything that has mass – is made of atoms. This includes solids, liquids, and gases. The atom cannot be broken to parts by chemistry, so people once thought it was the smallest piece of matter that could exist. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts.
Atoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. Scientists learn how they work by doing experiments.
Atoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons have much more mass. These are in the middle of the atom, called the nucleus. Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together.
Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the same chemical element. Examples of elements are carbon and gold. Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an ion, and has an electric charge.
Atoms can join by chemical bonds. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are chemical compounds or mixtures. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a molecule. For example, a water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a chemical reaction.
Atoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a star. These changes are studied in nuclear physics. Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom.
## History
The word "atom" comes from the Greek (ἀτόμος) "atomos", which means _indivisible_ or _uncuttable_. One of the first people to use the word "atom" is the Greek philosopher Democritus, around 400 <small>BC</small>. He thought that everything was made of particles called atoms, which could not be divided into smaller pieces. Some Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist philosophers also had ideas like this. Atomic theory was a mostly philosophical subject, with not much scientific investigation or study, until the early 1800s.
In 1777 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier defined the term _element_ as we now use it. He said that an element was any substance that could not be broken down into other substances by the methods of chemistry. Any substance which could be broken down was a _compound_.
In 1803, English philosopher John Dalton suggested that elements were made of tiny, solid balls called atoms. Dalton believed that all atoms of the same element have the same mass. He said that compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. In any one compound, the atoms would always combine in the same numbers.
In 1827, British scientist Robert Brown looked at pollen grains in water under his microscope. The pollen grains appeared to be shaking. Brown used Dalton's atomic theory to describe patterns in how they moved. This was called _Brownian motion_. In 1905 Albert Einstein used mathematics to prove that the pollen particles were being moved by the motion, or heat, of individual water molecules. By doing this, he proved that atoms are real without question.
In 1869, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table. The periodic table groups elements by their atomic number (how many protons they have; this is usually the same as the number of electrons). Elements in the same column, or group, usually have similar qualities. For example, helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all in the same column and are very similar. All these elements are gases that have no color or smell. Also, they cannot combine with other atoms to form compounds. Together they are known as noble gases.
The physicist J.J. Thomson was the first person to discover electrons. This happened while he was working with cathode rays in 1897. He learned they had a negative charge, and the rest of the atom had a positive charge. Thomson made the plum pudding model, which said that an atom was like plum pudding: the dried fruit (electrons) were stuck in a mass of pudding (having a positive charge).
In 1909, Ernest Rutherford used the Geiger–Marsden experiment to prove that most of an atom is in a very small space, the atomic nucleus. Rutherford took a photo plate and covered it with gold foil. He then shot alpha particles (made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together) at it. Many of the particles went through the gold foil, which proved that atoms are mostly empty space. Electrons are so small and fast-moving that they did not block the particles from going through. Rutherford later discovered protons in the nucleus.
In 1913, Niels Bohr created the Bohr model. This model showed that electrons travel around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. This was better than the Rutherford model, but it was still not completely true.
In 1925, chemist Frederick Soddy discovered that some elements had more than one kind of atom, called isotopes. Soddy believed that each different isotope of an element has a different mass. To prove this, chemist Francis William Aston built the mass spectrometer, which measures the mass of single atoms. Aston proved that Soddy was right. He also found that the mass of each atom is a whole number times the mass of the proton. This meant that there must be some particles in the nucleus other than protons. In 1932, physicist James Chadwick shot alpha particles at beryllium atoms. He saw that a particle shot out of the beryllium atoms. This particle had no charge, but about the same mass as a proton. He named this particle the neutron.
The best model so far comes from the Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger learned that the electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, called the electron cloud. In the electron cloud, it is impossible to know exactly where electrons are. The Schrödinger equation says where an electron is likely to be. This area is called the electron's orbital.
In 1937, German chemist Otto Hahn became the first person to make nuclear fission in a laboratory. He discovered this by chance when shooting neutrons at a uranium atom, hoping to make a new isotope. However, instead of a new isotope, the uranium changed into a barium atom, a smaller atom than uranium. Hahn had "broken" the uranium atom. This was the world's first recorded nuclear fission reaction. This discovery led to the creation of the atomic bomb and nuclear power, where fission happens over and over again, creating a chain reaction.
Later in the 20th century, physicists went deeper into the mysteries of the atom. Using particle accelerators, they discovered that protons and neutrons were made of other particles, called quarks.
### Parts
An atom is made of three main particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. Protons and neutrons have nearly the same size and mass (about grams). The mass of an electron is about 1800 times smaller (about grams). Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge. Most atoms have no charge. The number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are the same, so the charges balance out to zero. However, ions have a different number of electrons than protons, so they have a positive or negative charge.
Scientists believe that electrons are elementary particles: they are not made of any smaller pieces. Protons and neutrons are made of quarks of two kinds: up quarks and down quarks. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark.
### Nucleus
The nucleus is in the middle of the atom. It is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus makes up more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. However, it is very small: about 1 femtometer (10<sup>−15</sup> m) across, which is around 100,000 times smaller than the width of an atom, so it has a very high density.
Usually in nature, two things with the same charge repel or shoot away from each other. So for a long time, scientists did not know how the positively charged protons in the nucleus stayed together. We now believe that the attraction between protons and neutrons comes from the _strong nuclear force_. This force also holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. Particles called mesons travel back and forth between protons and neutrons, and carry the force.
The number of neutrons in relation to protons defines whether the nucleus stays together or goes through radioactive decay. When there are too many neutrons or protons, the atom tries to make the numbers smaller or more equal by removing the extra particles. It sends out radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma decay. Nuclei can also change in other ways. Nuclear fission is when the nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei, releasing a lot of energy. This release of energy makes nuclear fission useful for making bombs, and electricity in the form of nuclear power.
The other way nuclei can change is through nuclear fusion, when two nuclei join or fuse to make a larger nucleus. This process requires very high amounts of energy to overcome the electric repulsion between the protons, as they have the same charge. Such high energies are most common in stars like our Sun, which fuses hydrogen for fuel. However, once fusion happens, far more energy is released, because some of the mass becomes energy.
The energy needed to break a nucleus into protons and neutrons is called its nuclear binding energy. This energy can be converted to mass, as stated by Einstein's famous formula _E_ = _mc_<sup>2</sup>. Medium-sized nuclei, such as iron-56 and nickel-62, have the highest binding energy per proton or neutron. They will probably not go through fission or fusion, because they cannot release energy in this way. Very small and very large atoms have low binding energy, so they are most willing to go through fission or fusion.
### Electrons
Electrons orbit, or travel around, the nucleus. They are called the atom's _electron cloud_. They are attracted to the nucleus because of the electromagnetic force. Electrons have a negative charge, and the nucleus always has a positive charge, so they attract each other.
The Bohr model shows that some electrons are farther from the nucleus than others in different levels. These are called _electron shells_. Only the electrons in the outer shell can make chemical bonds. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines whether the atom is stable or which atoms it will bond with in a chemical reaction. If an atom has only one shell, it needs two electrons to be complete. Otherwise, the outer shell needs eight electrons to be complete.
The Bohr model is important because it has the idea of energy levels. The electrons in each shell have a certain amount of energy. Shells that are farther from the nucleus have more energy. When a small burst of energy called a photon hits an electron, the electron can jump into a _higher-energy_ shell. This photon must carry exactly the right amount of energy to bring the electron to the new energy level. A photon is a burst of light, and the amount of energy determines the color of light. So each kind of atom will absorb certain colors of light, called the absorption spectrum. An electron can also send out, or emit, a photon, and fall into a _lower energy_ shell. For the same reason, the atom will only send out certain colors of light, called the emission spectrum.
The complete picture is more complicated. Unlike the Earth moving around the Sun, electrons do not move in a circle. We cannot know the exact place of an electron. We only know the probability, or chance, that it will be in any place. Each electron is part of an _orbital_, which describes where it is likely to be. No more than two electrons can be in one orbital; these two electrons have different _spin_.
For each shell, numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, there may be a number of different orbitals. These have different shapes, or point in different directions. Each orbital can be described by its three _quantum numbers_. The _principal quantum number_ is the electron shell number. The _azimuthal quantum number_ is represented by a letter: s, p, d, or f. Depending on the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers, the electron can have more or less energy. There is also a _magnetic quantum number_, but it does not usually affect the energy level. As more electrons are added, they join orbitals in order from lowest to highest energy. This order starts as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. For example, a chlorine atom has 17 electrons. So, it will have:
- 2 electrons in the 1s orbital
- 2 electrons in the 2s orbital
- 6 electrons in the 2p orbitals
- 2 electrons in the 3s orbital
- 5 electrons in the 3p orbitals
In other words, it has 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the third shell.
### Atomic number
The number of protons in an atom is called its _atomic number_. Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, so the atomic number of carbon is six. Today, 118 elements are known. Depending on how the number is counted, 90 to 94 elements exist naturally on earth. All elements above number 94 have only been made by humans. These elements are organized on the periodic table.
### Atomic mass and weight
Because protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass, and the mass of electrons is very small, we can call the number of protons and neutrons in an atom its _mass number_. Most elements have several isotopes with different mass numbers. To name an isotope, we use the name of the element, followed by its mass number. So an atom with six protons and seven neutrons is called carbon-13.
Sometimes, we need a more exact measurement. The exact mass of an atom is called its _atomic mass_. This is usually measured with the atomic mass unit (amu), also called the dalton. One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is grams. Hydrogen-1 has a mass of about 1 amu. The heaviest atom known, oganesson, has a mass of about 294 amu, or grams. The average mass of all atoms of a particular element is called its _atomic weight_.
### Size
The size of an atom depends on the size of its electron cloud. Moving down the periodic table, more electron shells are added. As a result, atoms get bigger. Moving to the right on the periodic table, more protons are added to the nucleus. This more positive nucleus pulls electrons more strongly, so atoms get smaller. The biggest atom is caesium, which is about 0.596 nanometers wide according to one model. The smallest atom is helium, which is about 0.062 nanometers wide.
### How atoms interact
When atoms are far apart, they attract each other. This attraction is stronger for some kinds of atoms than others. At the same time, the heat, or kinetic energy, of atoms makes them always move. If the attraction is strong enough, relative to the amount of heat, atoms will form a solid. If the attraction is weaker, they will form a liquid, and if it is even weaker, they will form a gas.
Chemical bonds are the strongest kinds of attraction between atoms. The movement of electrons explains all chemical bonds.
Atoms usually bond with each other in a way that fills or empties their outer electron shell. The most reactive elements have an almost full or almost empty outer shell. Atoms with a full outer shell, called noble gases, do not usually form bonds.
There are three main kinds of bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.
- In an ionic bond, one atom gives electrons to another atom. Each atom becomes an ion: an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge. The positive ion (which has lost electrons) is called a cation; it is usually a metal. The negative ion (which has gained electrons) is called an anion; it is usually a nonmetal. Ionic bonding usually results in a regular network, or crystal, of ions held together.
- In a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons. This usually happens when both atoms are nonmetals. Covalent bonds often form molecules, ranging in size from two atoms to many more. They can also form large networks, such as glass or graphite. The number of bonds that an atom makes (its valency) is usually the number of electrons needed to fill its outer electron shell.
- In a metallic bond, electrons travel freely between many metal atoms. Any number of atoms can bond this way. Metals conduct electric current because electric charge can easily flow through them. Atoms in metals can move past each other, so it is easy to bend, stretch, and change the shape of metals.
All atoms attract each other by Van der Waals forces. These forces are weaker than chemical bonds. They are caused when electrons move to one side of an atom. This movement gives a negative charge to that side. It also gives a positive charge to the other side. When two atoms line up their sides with negative and positive charges, they will attract.
Although atoms are mostly empty space, they cannot pass through each other. When two atoms are very close, their electron clouds will repel each other by the electromagnetic force.
### Magnetism
To understand how magnets work, we can look at the properties of the atom. Any magnet has a north and south pole, and a certain strength. The direction and strength of a magnet, together, are called its magnetic moment. Every electron also has a magnetic moment, like a tiny magnet. This comes from the electron's spin and its orbit around the nucleus. The magnetic moments for the electrons add up to a magnetic moment for the whole atom. This tells us how atoms act in a magnetic field.
Every electron has one of two opposite spins. We can think of one as turning to the right, and the other as turning to the left. If every electron is paired with an electron with the opposite spin in the same orbital, the magnetic moments will cancel out to zero. Atoms like this are called diamagnetic. They are only weakly repelled by a magnetic field.
However, if some electrons are not paired, the atom will have a lasting magnetic moment: it will be paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. When atoms are paramagnetic, the magnetic moment of each atom points in a random direction. They are weakly attracted to a magnetic field. When atoms are ferromagnetic, the magnetic moments of nearby atoms act on each other. They point in the same direction. This means that the whole object is a magnet, and it can point in the direction of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, are strongly attracted to a magnetic field.
### Radioactive decay
Some elements, and many isotopes, have what is called an _unstable nucleus_. This means the nucleus is either too big to hold itself together, or it has too many protons or neutrons. When a nucleus is unstable, it has to eliminate the excess mass of particles. It does this through radiation. An atom that does this is called _radioactive_. Unstable atoms emit radiation until they lose enough particles in the nucleus to become stable. All atoms above atomic number 82 (82 protons, lead) are radioactive.
There are three main kinds of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma.
- Alpha decay is when the atom shoots out a particle having two protons and two neutrons. This is a helium-4 nucleus. The result is an element with an atomic number of two less than before. So, for example, if a uranium atom (atomic number 92) went through alpha decay, it would become thorium (atomic number 90). Alpha decay happens when an atom is too big and needs to lose some mass.
- Beta decay is when a neutron turns into a proton, or a proton turns into a neutron. In the first case, the atom shoots out an electron. In the second case, it shoots out a positron (like an electron but with a positive charge). The result is an element with one higher or one lower atomic number than before. Beta decay happens when an atom has either too many protons or too many neutrons.
- Gamma decay is when an atom shoots out a gamma ray, or wave. It happens when there is a change in the energy of the nucleus. This is usually after a nucleus has gone through alpha or beta decay. There is no change in the atom's mass, or atomic number, only in the stored energy inside the nucleus, in the form of particle spin.
Every radioactive element or isotope has a _half-life_. This is how long it takes half of any sample of atoms of that type to decay into a different isotope or element.
## Creation of atoms
Nearly all the hydrogen atoms in the Universe, most of the helium atoms, and some of the lithium atoms were made soon after the Big Bang. Even today, about 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.
All other atoms come from nuclear fusion in stars, or sometimes from cosmic rays that hit atoms. At the start of their life, all stars fuse hydrogen to make helium. The least massive stars, red dwarfs, are expected to stop there. All other stars will then fuse helium to make carbon and oxygen. In stars like the Sun, the temperature and pressure are too low to make larger atoms. But more massive stars continue fusion, until they create iron (atomic number 26) or nickel (atomic number 28). Atoms can also grow larger when neutrons or protons hit them. This could happen inside stars or in supernovae. Most atoms on Earth were made by a star that existed before the Sun.
People make very large atoms by smashing together smaller atoms in particle accelerators. However, these atoms often decay very quickly. Oganesson (element 118) has a half-life of 0.00089 seconds. Even larger atoms may be created in the future.
## Related pages
- Atomic physics, for more detail about the physics of atoms
- Atomic theory, for more detail about the history
- Chemical element, each kind of atom
- Exotic atom, an atom with different parts instead of protons, neutrons, and electrons
- Quantum mechanics, the study of small particles and how they interact with energy
- States of matter, the different forms in which atoms or molecules can be found
## Other websites
- Atom (science) -Citizendium)
- General information on atomic structure
## Infobox (atom)
|
high
| false
| false
|
48
|
Astronomy
|
**Astronomy** is the [scientific study](700) of celestial bodies. It is a major branch of [space science](1227874). [Star](3017)s, [galaxies](314), [planet](639)s, [moon](2900)s, [asteroid](51)s, [comet](168)s and [nebula](96972)e are studied, as are [supernovae explosions](24914), gamma ray bursts, and [cosmic microwave background radiation](183307). Astronomy includes the development, [physics](591), [chemistry](108), [meteorology](15231) and [movement](508) of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the [universe](858).
Astronomy is one of the oldest [science](700)s. The patterns of stars in the night sky were called constellations in [Late Latin](888222). They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops.
[Astrophysics](9235) is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, [cosmology](136), is concerned with studying the [universe](858) as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as _[astrology](29179)_, a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect [human](502310) lives.
There are two main types of astronomy, _observational_ and _theoretical_ astronomy. Observational astronomy uses [telescope](2911)s and [camera](14058)s to _observe_ or look at stars, galaxies and other [astronomical object](306599)s. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work. The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the Universe. For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied.
Day-time astronomy is possible but could be harmful. The [Sun](44408), is our biggest star, better describes as a big all of light and observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of [binoculars](26496).
### Ancient history
Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made [map](7647)s of the [constellation](4913)s and stars for religious reasons and [calendar](7517)s to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the [Ancient Egypt](15034)ians built simple [observatories](14062) and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of [Earth](219) in the [universe](858). For a long time people thought [Earth](219) was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it. This is known as [geocentrism](439112). Astronomy is from the Greek _astron_ (ἄστρον) meaning "star" and _nomos_ (nόμος) meaning "law")
Ancient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the Sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named [Eratosthenes](130839) was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a [sphere](3541). A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the Sun is the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as [heliocentrism](413571). Only a few people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the _geocentric_ model. Most of the names of constellations and stars come from Greeks of that time.
Arabic astronomers made many advancements during the [Middle Ages](6593) including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth. They also learned from the ancients by translating Greek books into Arabic.
### Renaissance to modern era
During the [renaissance](25297) a priest named [Nicolaus Copernicus](26332) thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a [planet](639) and all the planets moved around the Sun. This brought back the old idea of heliocentrism. [Galileo Galilei](4052) built his own [telescope](2911)s, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. The [Catholic Church](10754) thought Galileo was wrong. He spent the rest of his life under [house arrest](271383). Heliocentric ideas were soon improved by [Johannes Kepler](33790) and [Isaac Newton](5123), who invented the theory of [gravity](2901).
After Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets [Uranus](882) and [Neptune](558). They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as [galaxies](314) and [nebula](96972)e.
### Modern era
The 20th century after 1920 saw important changes in astronomy.
In the early 1920s it began to be accepted that the [galaxy](314) in which we live, the [Milky Way](505), is not the only galaxy. The existence of other galaxies was settled by [Edwin Hubble](265802), who identified the [Andromeda nebula](249671) as a different galaxy. It was also Hubble who proved that the universe was expanding. There were many other galaxies at large distances and they are receding, moving away from our galaxy. That was completely unexpected.
In 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the [electromagnetic spectrum](55923) to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made.
The opening of this new window on the [Universe](858) saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example [pulsar](37425)s, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that (so it was thought) it implied an artificial source.
The period after [World War II](219837) saw more [observatories](14062). Large and accurate telescopes were built and operated at good observing sites, usually by governments. For example, [Bernard Lovell](359745) began [radio astronomy](541187) at Jodrell Bank using leftover military [radar](25169) equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at [Mauna Kea](3798) in [Hawaii](332), a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high [altitude](324051) and clear skies.
The next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry. This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on [satellites](18867).
[Space telescopes](430339) gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire [electromagnetic spectrum](55923) including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere. The [X-ray](22434)s, [gamma ray](1079341)s, [ultraviolet](12509) light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched. As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made.
From 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
## Discoveries
Discoveries broadly come in two types: bodies and phenomena. Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth, or a galaxy like our Milky Way. Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe.
### Bodies
For convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies.
#### Solar
- [Planet](639)s
- [Asteroid](51)s
- [Comet](168)s
#### Galactic
- [Star](3017)s
Diffuse Objects:
- [Nebula](96972)s
- Clusters
Compact Stars:
- [White dwarf stars](4443)
- [Neutron star](26182)s
- [Black hole](3506)s
#### Cosmic
- [Galaxies](314)
- [Galaxy cluster](357618)s
- [Supercluster](454742)s
### Phenomena
Burst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly. These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a "burst" of energy. They include:
- [Supernova](24914)s
- [Nova](283490)s
Periodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way. The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a [wave](3285) to complete one cycle. Periodic phenomena include:
- [Pulsar](37425)s
- [Variable star](125638)s
Noise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago. The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity. In this way, it is "noise", the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy. The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions. The principal astronomical example is: cosmic background radiation.
### Instruments
- Telescopes are the main tool of observing. They take all the light in a big area and put in into a small area. This is like making your eyes very big and powerful. Astronomers use telescopes to look at things that are far away and dim. Telescopes make objects look bigger, closer, brighter.
- [Spectrometer](61827)s study the different [wavelength](23389)s of light. This shows what something is made of.
- Many telescopes are in satellites. They are [space observatories](430339). The Earth’s [atmosphere](350724) blocks some parts of the [electromagnetic spectrum](55923), but special telescopes above the atmosphere can detect that radiation.
- [Radio astronomy](541187) uses [radio telescope](2142)s. Aperture synthesis combines smaller telescopes to create a phased array, which works like a telescope as big as the distance between the smaller telescopes.
### Techniques
There are way astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens. Light from a distant source reaches a [sensor](131145) and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera. For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen. One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using _integration_ (which is like longer exposures in [photography](5007)).
#### Integration
Astronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen.
Telescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures. Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by [computer](112), which overlays the images after correcting for movement.
#### Adaptive optics
[Adaptive optics](80978) means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better.
### Data analysis
Data analysis is the process of getting more information out of an astronomical observation than by simply looking at it. The observation is first stored as data. This data then has various techniques used to [analyse](4492) it.
#### Fourier analysis
[Fourier analysis](414627) in [mathematics](467) can show if an observation (over a length of time) is changing periodically (changes like a wave). If so, it can extract the frequencies and the type of wave pattern, and find many things including new planets.
## Subfields of astronomy
[Pulsar](37425)s pulse regularly in radio waves. These turned out to be similar to some (but not all) of a type of bright source in X-rays called a Low-mass X-ray binary. It turned out that all pulsars and some LMXBs are neutron stars and that the differences were due to the environment in which the neutron star was found. Those LMXBs that were not neutron stars turned out to be black holes.
This section attempts to provide an overview of the important fields of astronomy.
### Solar astronomy
Solar astronomy is the study of the [Sun](44408). The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged [particle](13990)s called the [Solar wind](126603) is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar wind hitting the Earth's [magnetic field](29209) causes the [northern lights](50194).
**Stellar astronomy**
Stellar astronomy, sometimes _stellar astrophysics_ is the scientific study of stars, their formation, evolution and fate ([stellar evolution](9421)). In the most basic sense, Stellar Astronomy attempts to answer the questions to the universe's most common phenomena — stars. Heavily relating with Galactic and Planetary Astronomy.
### Planetary astronomy
Planetary astronomy is the study of [planet](639)s, moons, [dwarf planet](34462)s, [comet](168)s and [asteroid](51)s as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own [Solar System](800) have been studied in depth by many visiting [spacecraft](21736) such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the [Voyager 1](46571) and [2](67147).
### Galactic astronomy
Galactic astronomy is the study of distant [galaxies](314). Studying distant galaxies is a good way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe. Galactic astronomers try to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed by using different types of telescopes and computer simulations.
### Gravitational wave astronomy
[Gravitational wave](176534) astronomy is the study of the [Universe](858) in the gravitational wave spectrum. So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the [electromagnetic spectrum](55923). Gravitational waves are ripples in [spacetime](37492) emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include [white dwarves](4443), [neutron star](26182)s and [black hole](3506)s. Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of gravitational wave astronomy has been limited.
## Unsolved problems
Great discoveries also produce unsolved problems. This is just a short-list:
- [Dark matter](34685) and [dark energy](169381): what are they?
- Ultimate fate of the [Universe](858)? What will it be?
- Why is [lithium](3735) 4 times rarer than predicted?
- Origin of [supermassive black hole](171231)s.
- The source of ultra-high energy cosmic rays.
- The existence of [Extraterrestrial life](41947).
## Related pages
- [Asteroid](51)
- [Astrobiology](15927)
- [Astrometry](197934)
- [Astrophysics](9235)
- [Black hole](3506)
- [Comet](168)
- [Galaxy](314)
- [Meteor](8093)
- [Planet](639)
- [Planetarium](372634)
- Satellite (natural)
- [Solar system](800)
- [Star](3017)
- [Universe](858)
## Other websites
- [Astronomy site specifically designed for kids and their parents.](http://www.dustbunny.com/afk/)
- [Astronomy Picture of the Day](http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/)
|
**Astronomy** is the scientific study of celestial bodies. It is a major branch of space science. Stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae are studied, as are supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Astronomy includes the development, physics, chemistry, meteorology and movement of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the universe.
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. The patterns of stars in the night sky were called constellations in Late Latin. They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops.
Astrophysics is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, cosmology, is concerned with studying the universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as _astrology_, a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect human lives.
There are two main types of astronomy, _observational_ and _theoretical_ astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to _observe_ or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work. The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the Universe. For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied.
Day-time astronomy is possible but could be harmful. The Sun, is our biggest star, better describes as a big all of light and observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of binoculars.
### Ancient history
Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and calendars to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it. This is known as geocentrism. Astronomy is from the Greek _astron_ (ἄστρον) meaning "star" and _nomos_ (nόμος) meaning "law")
Ancient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the Sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named Eratosthenes was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a sphere. A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the Sun is the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as heliocentrism. Only a few people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the _geocentric_ model. Most of the names of constellations and stars come from Greeks of that time.
Arabic astronomers made many advancements during the Middle Ages including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth. They also learned from the ancients by translating Greek books into Arabic.
### Renaissance to modern era
During the renaissance a priest named Nicolaus Copernicus thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a planet and all the planets moved around the Sun. This brought back the old idea of heliocentrism. Galileo Galilei built his own telescopes, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. The Catholic Church thought Galileo was wrong. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Heliocentric ideas were soon improved by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, who invented the theory of gravity.
After Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets Uranus and Neptune. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as galaxies and nebulae.
### Modern era
The 20th century after 1920 saw important changes in astronomy.
In the early 1920s it began to be accepted that the galaxy in which we live, the Milky Way, is not the only galaxy. The existence of other galaxies was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy. It was also Hubble who proved that the universe was expanding. There were many other galaxies at large distances and they are receding, moving away from our galaxy. That was completely unexpected.
In 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made.
The opening of this new window on the Universe saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example pulsars, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that (so it was thought) it implied an artificial source.
The period after World War II saw more observatories. Large and accurate telescopes were built and operated at good observing sites, usually by governments. For example, Bernard Lovell began radio astronomy at Jodrell Bank using leftover military radar equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high altitude and clear skies.
The next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry. This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on satellites.
Space telescopes gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire electromagnetic spectrum including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere. The X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched. As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made.
From 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
## Discoveries
Discoveries broadly come in two types: bodies and phenomena. Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth, or a galaxy like our Milky Way. Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe.
### Bodies
For convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies.
#### Solar
- Planets
- Asteroids
- Comets
#### Galactic
- Stars
Diffuse Objects:
- Nebulas
- Clusters
Compact Stars:
- White dwarf stars
- Neutron stars
- Black holes
#### Cosmic
- Galaxies
- Galaxy clusters
- Superclusters
### Phenomena
Burst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly. These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a "burst" of energy. They include:
- Supernovas
- Novas
Periodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way. The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a wave to complete one cycle. Periodic phenomena include:
- Pulsars
- Variable stars
Noise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago. The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity. In this way, it is "noise", the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy. The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions. The principal astronomical example is: cosmic background radiation.
### Instruments
- Telescopes are the main tool of observing. They take all the light in a big area and put in into a small area. This is like making your eyes very big and powerful. Astronomers use telescopes to look at things that are far away and dim. Telescopes make objects look bigger, closer, brighter.
- Spectrometers study the different wavelengths of light. This shows what something is made of.
- Many telescopes are in satellites. They are space observatories. The Earth’s atmosphere blocks some parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, but special telescopes above the atmosphere can detect that radiation.
- Radio astronomy uses radio telescopes. Aperture synthesis combines smaller telescopes to create a phased array, which works like a telescope as big as the distance between the smaller telescopes.
### Techniques
There are way astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens. Light from a distant source reaches a sensor and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera. For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen. One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using _integration_ (which is like longer exposures in photography).
#### Integration
Astronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen.
Telescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures. Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by computer, which overlays the images after correcting for movement.
#### Adaptive optics
Adaptive optics means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better.
### Data analysis
Data analysis is the process of getting more information out of an astronomical observation than by simply looking at it. The observation is first stored as data. This data then has various techniques used to analyse it.
#### Fourier analysis
Fourier analysis in mathematics can show if an observation (over a length of time) is changing periodically (changes like a wave). If so, it can extract the frequencies and the type of wave pattern, and find many things including new planets.
## Subfields of astronomy
Pulsars pulse regularly in radio waves. These turned out to be similar to some (but not all) of a type of bright source in X-rays called a Low-mass X-ray binary. It turned out that all pulsars and some LMXBs are neutron stars and that the differences were due to the environment in which the neutron star was found. Those LMXBs that were not neutron stars turned out to be black holes.
This section attempts to provide an overview of the important fields of astronomy.
### Solar astronomy
Solar astronomy is the study of the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged particles called the Solar wind is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar wind hitting the Earth's magnetic field causes the northern lights.
**Stellar astronomy**
Stellar astronomy, sometimes _stellar astrophysics_ is the scientific study of stars, their formation, evolution and fate (stellar evolution). In the most basic sense, Stellar Astronomy attempts to answer the questions to the universe's most common phenomena — stars. Heavily relating with Galactic and Planetary Astronomy.
### Planetary astronomy
Planetary astronomy is the study of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets and asteroids as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own Solar System have been studied in depth by many visiting spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the Voyager 1 and 2.
### Galactic astronomy
Galactic astronomy is the study of distant galaxies. Studying distant galaxies is a good way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe. Galactic astronomers try to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed by using different types of telescopes and computer simulations.
### Gravitational wave astronomy
Gravitational wave astronomy is the study of the Universe in the gravitational wave spectrum. So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the electromagnetic spectrum. Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include white dwarves, neutron stars and black holes. Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of gravitational wave astronomy has been limited.
## Unsolved problems
Great discoveries also produce unsolved problems. This is just a short-list:
- Dark matter and dark energy: what are they?
- Ultimate fate of the Universe? What will it be?
- Why is lithium 4 times rarer than predicted?
- Origin of supermassive black holes.
- The source of ultra-high energy cosmic rays.
- The existence of Extraterrestrial life.
## Related pages
- Asteroid
- Astrobiology
- Astrometry
- Astrophysics
- Black hole
- Comet
- Galaxy
- Meteor
- Planet
- Planetarium
- Satellite (natural)
- Solar system
- Star
- Universe
## Other websites
- Astronomy site specifically designed for kids and their parents.
- Astronomy Picture of the Day
|
high
| false
| false
|
49
|
Architecture
|
**Architecture** is the process of [design](8150)ing [structure](21702)s and [building](6081)s. It uses both [art](6) and [engineering](2816). Examples include houses, [church](142)es, [hotel](19364)s, [office](18121) buildings, roads, [tunnel](8152)s and [bridge](5010)s.
Architecture is the [profession](26135) of an [architect](13217). Usually, a person must study at an [institution](60256) of [higher education](117904) (university) to become an [architect](13217). There were architects long before there was [higher education](117904). They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect.
Architecture can do small designs, such as for a [garage](290993), or large designs, such as for a whole [new town](21942). The capital cities of [Brasília](19841), and [Canberra](4742) were designed. Architects often work with [structural engineers](153035) to make structurally sound buildings.
## History
In the past, people built huts and wood [house](4900)s to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great [civilization](16146)s like the [Ancient Egypt](15034)ians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The [Ancient Greek](16174)s and [Roman](24298)s made what we now call "[Classical Architecture](810428)". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the [arch](13221) from the Etruscans, who copied it from the [Mesopotamia](43746)ns.
**Classical architecture** was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used [symmetry](40839), which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The [Golden Mean](101832) was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched [bridge](5010) needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of [year](944)s of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. [Several bridges have blown down](471825) because that was not properly taken into consideration.
In some parts of the world, like [India](391), the architecture is famous for [carving](835400) the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in [China](120), [Japan](403), Southeast Asia, [Africa](1942), [Mexico](1935), and Central and [South America](1989).
Architects in [Western Europe](45219) in the [Middle Ages](6593) made [Romanesque architecture](74929), then Gothic architecture. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed [window](928)s and arches. Many [church](142)es have Gothic architecture. [Castle](15933)s were also built at this time. In [Eastern Europe](45071), churches usually had [dome](27444)s. People added their own ideas and decoration to the Classical Architecture of the past. The [Renaissance](25297) brought a return to classical ideas.
In the late 18th century with the [Industrial Revolution](14701), people began to invent machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many [factories](14624) and mills were built during, or after this revolution. Decades later, in the [Victorian era](183833), architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style to build new churches. Up to this point, buildings were limited in size and style by the strength of the wood and [masonry](108022) used to construct them. Gothic cathedrals were among the largest buildings because the gothic arch when combined with [buttress](78395)es allowed stone buildings to be built taller. For example, the cathedral in [Ulm](21870), Germany is over 500 feet tall. However, building with stone has its limits, and building too tall could result in collapse. This happened to the [Beauvais Cathedral](116564), which was never completed.
Towards the end of the 19th Century with a second Industrial Revolution, [steel](8299) became much cheaper. Architects began to use inventions like metal girders and [reinforced concrete](70148) to build. An example is the [Eiffel Tower](5246) in [Paris](4467). Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them skyscrapers. This new [technology](15232) has made us free from traditional limitations, and because of the new possibilities presented by these materials, many traditional methods of construction and ideas about style were reevaluated, replaced, or abandoned. Cheap, strong glass soon brought transparent exterior walls, especially for office buildings.
[Modernism](183830) is the name for the architectural style which developed because of these new building technologies, and its beginnings can been seen as early as 1890. Modernism can also refer to a specific group of architects and buildings from the early to late 20th century, and so may not be the proper term to use for many building built since then, which are sometimes called "post-modern".
Many of the world's greatest structures were built by modern-day architects such as [Frank Lloyd Wright](63951); Sir Hugh Casson; Norman Foster; [I. M. Pei](105495); [Adrian Smith](375627); [Edward Durell Stone](316990); [Frank Gehry](380211); [Fazlur Khan](371882); [Gottfried Böhm](430562); and [Bruce Graham](371883).
## Related pages
- [Acoustics](21739)
- [Architect](13217)
- [Art](6)
- [Building code](234631)
- Building materials
- [Earthquake engineering](234423)
- [List of buildings](4406)
- [Pattern language](28669)
- [Skyscraper](7435)
- [Structural Engineering](153035)
- [World Heritage Site](29360)s
## Other websites
- [American Institute of Architects](http://www.aia.org/index.htm)
- [Australian Institute of Architects](http://www.architecture.com.au/)
- [Royal Institute of British Architects](http://www.architecture.com/Home.aspx)
- [Royal Architectural Institute of Canada](http://www.raic.org/)
- [New Zealand Institute of Architects](http://www.nzia.co.nz/)
- [Architecture](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Architecture) Citizendium
|
**Architecture** is the process of designing structures and buildings. It uses both art and engineering. Examples include houses, churches, hotels, office buildings, roads, tunnels and bridges.
Architecture is the profession of an architect. Usually, a person must study at an institution of higher education (university) to become an architect. There were architects long before there was higher education. They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect.
Architecture can do small designs, such as for a garage, or large designs, such as for a whole new town. The capital cities of Brasília, and Canberra were designed. Architects often work with structural engineers to make structurally sound buildings.
## History
In the past, people built huts and wood houses to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great civilizations like the Ancient Egyptians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The Ancient Greeks and Romans made what we now call "Classical Architecture". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the arch from the Etruscans, who copied it from the Mesopotamians.
**Classical architecture** was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used symmetry, which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The Golden Mean was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched bridge needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of years of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. Several bridges have blown down because that was not properly taken into consideration.
In some parts of the world, like India, the architecture is famous for carving the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America.
Architects in Western Europe in the Middle Ages made Romanesque architecture, then Gothic architecture. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed windows and arches. Many churches have Gothic architecture. Castles were also built at this time. In Eastern Europe, churches usually had domes. People added their own ideas and decoration to the Classical Architecture of the past. The Renaissance brought a return to classical ideas.
In the late 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, people began to invent machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many factories and mills were built during, or after this revolution. Decades later, in the Victorian era, architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style to build new churches. Up to this point, buildings were limited in size and style by the strength of the wood and masonry used to construct them. Gothic cathedrals were among the largest buildings because the gothic arch when combined with buttresses allowed stone buildings to be built taller. For example, the cathedral in Ulm, Germany is over 500 feet tall. However, building with stone has its limits, and building too tall could result in collapse. This happened to the Beauvais Cathedral, which was never completed.
Towards the end of the 19th Century with a second Industrial Revolution, steel became much cheaper. Architects began to use inventions like metal girders and reinforced concrete to build. An example is the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them skyscrapers. This new technology has made us free from traditional limitations, and because of the new possibilities presented by these materials, many traditional methods of construction and ideas about style were reevaluated, replaced, or abandoned. Cheap, strong glass soon brought transparent exterior walls, especially for office buildings.
Modernism is the name for the architectural style which developed because of these new building technologies, and its beginnings can been seen as early as 1890. Modernism can also refer to a specific group of architects and buildings from the early to late 20th century, and so may not be the proper term to use for many building built since then, which are sometimes called "post-modern".
Many of the world's greatest structures were built by modern-day architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright; Sir Hugh Casson; Norman Foster; I. M. Pei; Adrian Smith; Edward Durell Stone; Frank Gehry; Fazlur Khan; Gottfried Böhm; and Bruce Graham.
## Related pages
- Acoustics
- Architect
- Art
- Building code
- Building materials
- Earthquake engineering
- List of buildings
- Pattern language
- Skyscraper
- Structural Engineering
- World Heritage Sites
## Other websites
- American Institute of Architects
- Australian Institute of Architects
- Royal Institute of British Architects
- Royal Architectural Institute of Canada
- New Zealand Institute of Architects
- Architecture Citizendium
|
medium
| false
| false
|
50
|
Anatomy
|
**Anatomy** is the [study](23574) of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as [muscles](13744), [glands](33809) and [bones](15304). A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist.
The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when [Egyptians](15034) began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the [liver](13888), [spleen](27966), [kidneys](13913), [heart](13432) etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the [lymphatic system](54954).
For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming.
Academic human anatomists are usually employed by [universities](884), [medical schools](220487) and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts.
## Body systems
There are different [organ systems](151697), such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the [circulatory system](13451) (the system that gets [blood](2950) around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains [muscle](13744)s), the [nervous system](52871) (the system that controls the [nerve](13704)s, and the brain) and the [skeleton](17184) (the bones).
Anatomy, [physiology](638) and [biochemistry](5771) are similar basic medical sciences.
## Related pages
- [Anatomical terms of location](807475)
- [Medicine](3793)
- [Zoology](954)
- [Comparative anatomy](220215)
- Organ (anatomy)
- [Gray's Anatomy](131607)
- Vesalius
- [William Harvey](43435)
|
**Anatomy** is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist.
The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system.
For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming.
Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts.
## Body systems
There are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves, and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones).
Anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences.
## Related pages
- Anatomical terms of location
- Medicine
- Zoology
- Comparative anatomy
- Organ (anatomy)
- Gray's Anatomy
- Vesalius
- William Harvey
|
medium
| false
| false
|
51
|
Asteroid
|
An **asteroid** is a minor planet that orbits within the inner [solar system](800). It is a small object in the [Solar System](800) that travels around the [Sun](44408). It is like a [planet](639) but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have an [asteroid moon](122147).
The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient [Greek language](4606). Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the [Sun](44408). Like planets, asteroids do not make their own [light](3987). Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name.
Asteroids are the leftover [rock](78599) and other material from the formation of the [Solar System](800). These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of [carbon](4887) or [metal](3332). Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various [asteroid spectral types](109009) including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon).
Most asteroids in our [Solar System](800) are in the [asteroid belt](3189) between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called [Near-Earth asteroid](99470)s. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off [all the dinosaurs](218549) and caused some of the other extinction events.
Media told in 2025, about the [chemical substance](17948)s that were (found on, or) sampled from asteroid Bennu: "traces of [brine](20474)" and "all five [nucleobase](72667)s that make up DNA and RNA: [adenine](71418), [guanine](72251), [cytosine](72218), [thymine](71484), and [uracil](72838)". The sample was taken in 2020, and the space capsule with sample, landed in the United States in 2023.
## History
Giuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the [asteroid belt](3189). Others, like [Juno](289045), [Pallas](287644), and [Vesta](67404) were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a [Minor planet designation](170040) starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized [telescope](2911)s find thousands of asteroids every month. [Asteroid impact prediction](654578) is one of their purposes.
|
An **asteroid** is a minor planet that orbits within the inner solar system. It is a small object in the Solar System that travels around the Sun. It is like a planet but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have an asteroid moon.
The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient Greek language. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the Sun. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own light. Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name.
Asteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the Solar System. These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of carbon or metal. Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various asteroid spectral types including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon).
Most asteroids in our Solar System are in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth asteroids. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off all the dinosaurs and caused some of the other extinction events.
Media told in 2025, about the chemical substances that were (found on, or) sampled from asteroid Bennu: "traces of brine" and "all five nucleobases that make up DNA and RNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil". The sample was taken in 2020, and the space capsule with sample, landed in the United States in 2023.
## History
Giuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the asteroid belt. Others, like Juno, Pallas, and Vesta were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a Minor planet designation starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized telescopes find thousands of asteroids every month. Asteroid impact prediction is one of their purposes.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
52
|
Afghanistan
|
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
- **common name**: Afghanistan
- **image flag**: Flag of Taliban.svg
- **flag caption**: Flag
- **image coat**: Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg
- **alt coat**: Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate
- **symbol type**: Emblem of Afghanistan, Emblem
- **national motto**:
"There is no god but God in Islam, God; Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad is the messenger of God." (_Shahadah_)
- **national anthem**:
""
"This Is the Home of the Brave"
- **capital**: Kabul
- **largest city**: Kabul
- **ethnic groups year**: 2010 unofficial estimates
- **religion**: * 99.9% Islam in Afghanistan, Islam
** 89.1% Sunni Islam, Sunni (State religion, official)
** 10.8% Shia Islam in Afghanistan, Shia
* 0.1% Religion in Afghanistan, other
- **demonym**: Afghans, Afghan
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary totalitarian theocratic Islamic emirate
- **leader title1**: Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme Leader / Emir
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Afghanistan, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Hasan Akhund (Acting prime minister, acting)
- **leader title3**: Chief Justice of Afghanistan, Chief Justice
- **leader name3**: Abdul Hakim Haqqani
- **legislature**: None
- **sovereignty type**: History of Afghanistan, Formation
- **established event1**: Hotak dynasty, Hotak Emirate
- **established date1**: 21 April 1709
- **established date2**: June 1747
- **established event3**: Emirate of Afghanistan, Barakzai Emirate
- **established date3**: 1823
- **established event4**: Dost Mohammad Khan, Dost Mohammad unites Afghanistan
- **established date4**: Herat campaign of 1862–1863, 27 May 1863
- **established event5**: Third Anglo-Afghan War, Independence
- **established date5**: Afghan Independence Day, 19 August 1919
- **established event6**: Kingdom of Afghanistan, Kingdom
- **established date6**: 9 June 1926
- **established event7**: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978), Republic
- **established date7**: 1973 Afghan coup d'état, 17 July 1973
- **established event8**: Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Democratic Republic
- **established date8**: Saur Revolution, 27–28 April 1978
- **established event9**: Islamic State of Afghanistan, Islamic State
- **established date9**: 28 April 1992
- **established event10**: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001), Islamic Emirate
- **established date10**: 27 September 1996
- **established date11**: 26 January 2004
- **established event12**: Fall of Kabul (2021), Restoration of Islamic Emirate
- **established date12**: 15 August 2021
- **area km2**: 652,867
- **area rank**: 40th
- **area sq mi**: 252,072
- **percent water**: negligible
- **population estimate**: 36–50 million
- **population estimate year**: July 2024
- **population estimate rank**: 36th
- **gdp ppp**: $91.668 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2023
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $2,174
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 179th
- **gdp nominal**: $17.329 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2023
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $411
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 190th
- **hdi**: 0.496
- **hdi year**: 2023
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 181st
- **currency**: Afghan afghani, Afghani ()
- **currency code**: AFN
- **time zone**: Afghanistan Time
- **utc offset**: +4:30
Lunar Hijri calendar
- **drives on**: right
- **cctld**: .af
- **religion year**: 2020
|
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
- **common name**: Afghanistan
- **image flag**: Flag of Taliban.svg
- **flag caption**: Flag
- **image coat**: Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg
- **alt coat**: Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate
- **symbol type**: Emblem of Afghanistan, Emblem
- **national motto**:
"There is no god but God in Islam, God; Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad is the messenger of God." (_Shahadah_)
- **national anthem**:
""
"This Is the Home of the Brave"
- **capital**: Kabul
- **largest city**: Kabul
- **ethnic groups year**: 2010 unofficial estimates
- **religion**: * 99.9% Islam in Afghanistan, Islam
** 89.1% Sunni Islam, Sunni (State religion, official)
** 10.8% Shia Islam in Afghanistan, Shia
* 0.1% Religion in Afghanistan, other
- **demonym**: Afghans, Afghan
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary totalitarian theocratic Islamic emirate
- **leader title1**: Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme Leader / Emir
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Afghanistan, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Hasan Akhund (Acting prime minister, acting)
- **leader title3**: Chief Justice of Afghanistan, Chief Justice
- **leader name3**: Abdul Hakim Haqqani
- **legislature**: None
- **sovereignty type**: History of Afghanistan, Formation
- **established event1**: Hotak dynasty, Hotak Emirate
- **established date1**: 21 April 1709
- **established date2**: June 1747
- **established event3**: Emirate of Afghanistan, Barakzai Emirate
- **established date3**: 1823
- **established event4**: Dost Mohammad Khan, Dost Mohammad unites Afghanistan
- **established date4**: Herat campaign of 1862–1863, 27 May 1863
- **established event5**: Third Anglo-Afghan War, Independence
- **established date5**: Afghan Independence Day, 19 August 1919
- **established event6**: Kingdom of Afghanistan, Kingdom
- **established date6**: 9 June 1926
- **established event7**: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978), Republic
- **established date7**: 1973 Afghan coup d'état, 17 July 1973
- **established event8**: Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Democratic Republic
- **established date8**: Saur Revolution, 27–28 April 1978
- **established event9**: Islamic State of Afghanistan, Islamic State
- **established date9**: 28 April 1992
- **established event10**: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001), Islamic Emirate
- **established date10**: 27 September 1996
- **established date11**: 26 January 2004
- **established event12**: Fall of Kabul (2021), Restoration of Islamic Emirate
- **established date12**: 15 August 2021
- **area km2**: 652,867
- **area rank**: 40th
- **area sq mi**: 252,072
- **percent water**: negligible
- **population estimate**: 36–50 million
- **population estimate year**: July 2024
- **population estimate rank**: 36th
- **gdp ppp**: $91.668 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2023
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $2,174
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 179th
- **gdp nominal**: $17.329 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2023
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $411
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 190th
- **hdi**: 0.496
- **hdi year**: 2023
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 181st
- **currency**: Afghan afghani, Afghani ()
- **currency code**: AFN
- **time zone**: Afghanistan Time
- **utc offset**: +4:30
Lunar Hijri calendar
- **drives on**: right
- **cctld**: .af
- **religion year**: 2020
|
high
| true
| false
|
53
|
Angola
|
**Angola**, officially the **Republic of Angola**, is a country in southern Africa. It shares borders with [Namibia](8250) in the south, the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](34328) in the north, and [Zambia](15643) in the east. Its west border touches the [Atlantic Ocean](1936). Its coastline is 1600 kilometers. Angola's capital is [Luanda](7448). The country has many [natural resources](552). Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa. The capital and most populated city of Angola is [Luanda](7448).
Angola is a member state of the [African Union](28093), the [Community of Portuguese Language Countries](912781), the Latin Union, [South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone](369865) and the Southern African Development Community.
## History
Portugal built up its power in Angola from the late 15th to the middle 20th century. After independence there was a [civil war](341042) from 1975 to 2002. Cuba and the Soviet Bloc supported the ruling [People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola](810577) (MPLA). South Africa supported the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) until the end of [apartheid](6393). The war ended after the rebel leader [Jonas Savimbi](553497) was killed.
## Geography
Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. Angola is bordered by [Namibia](8250) to the south, [Zambia](15643) to the east, the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](34328) to the north-east, the [Republic of the Congo](19598) via the exclave of [Cabinda](340791), and the South [Atlantic Ocean](1936) in the west.
## Climate
Angola's average temperature on the coast is in the winter and in the summer. It has two seasons; dry (May to October) and hot rainy (November to April).
## Demographics
Angola had a population of 25,789,024 in 2014.
## Provinces
Angola is divided into eighteen provinces.
|Map key|Province|Capital||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|{| class="wikitable sortable"||||
|1|[Bengo](340784)|[Caxito](340852)||
|2|[Benguela](340787)|[Benguela](340854)||
|3|[Bié](340789)|[Kuito](340856)||
|4|[Cabinda](340791)|[Cabinda](340859)||
|5|[Cuando Cubango](340810)|[Menongue](340862)||
|6|[Cuanza Norte](340818)|[N'dalatando](340864)||
|7|[Cuanza Sul](340820)|[Sumbe](340966)||
|8|[Cunene](340822)|[Ondjiva](340972)||
|9|[Huambo](340825)|[Huambo](340977)||
|10|[Huíla](340827)|[Lubango](340982)||
|11|[Luanda](340830)|[Luanda](7448)||
|12|[Lunda Norte](340833)|[Lucapa](340986)||
|13|[Lunda Sul](340836)|[Saurimo](340991)||
|14|[Malanje](340838)|[Malanje](340995)||
|15|[Moxico](340840)|[Luena](341004)||
|16|[Namibe](340843)|Namibe||
|17|[Uíge](340848)|[Uíge](341014)||
|18|[Zaire](340850)|[M'banza-Kongo](341016)|}|
See [List of settlements in Angola](352895) for the cities and towns in the country.
## Related pages
- [Angola at the Olympics](298518)
- [Angola national football team](171186)
- [List of rivers of Angola](336483)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Angola
- **common name**: Angola
- **image flag**: Flag of Angola.svg
- **image coat**: Emblem of the People's Republic of Angola (1975-1992).png
- **symbol type**: Emblem
- **national anthem**: "Angola Avante"
()
- **capital**: Luanda
- **religion year**: 2015
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: Portuguese language, Portuguese
- **languages2 type**: National languages
- **ethnic groups**: 37% Ovimbundu
25% Ambundu
13% Kongo people, Bakongo
21% Other African
2% Mestiço (mixed European and African)
1% Overseas Chinese, Chinese
1% White Africans of European ancestry, European
- **ethnic groups year**: 2000
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Dominant-party system, dominant-party Presidential system, presidential Republic, constitutional republic under an authoritarian dictatorship
- **leader title1**: President of Angola, President
- **leader name1**: João Lourenço
- **leader title2**: Vice President of Angola, Vice President
- **leader name2**: Bornito de Sousa
- **legislature**: National Assembly (Angola), National Assembly
- **sovereignty type**: History of Angola, Formation
- **established event1**: Angolan War of Independence, Independence from Portugal, under People's Republic of Angola, Communist rule
- **established date1**: 11 November 1975
- **established event2**: United Nations United Nations Security Council Resolution 397, full membership
- **established date2**: 22 November 1976
- **established event3**: Constitution of Angola, Current constitution
- **established date3**: 21 January 2010
- **area km2**: 1246700
- **area rank**: 22nd
- **area sq mi**: 481354
- **percent water**: negligible
- **population estimate**: 31,127,674
- **population census**: 25,789,024
- **population estimate year**: 2020
- **population estimate rank**: 46th
- **population census year**: 2014
- **population density km2**: 24.97
- **population density sq mi**: 64.65
- **population density rank**: 157th
- **gdp ppp**: $208.034 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp rank**: 64th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $6,850
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 107th
- **gdp nominal**: $124.600 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal rank**: 61st
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $4,101
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 91st
- **gini**: 51.3
- **gini year**: 2018
- **hdi**: 0.581
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 148th
- **currency**: Angolan kwanza, Kwanza
- **currency code**: AOA
- **time zone**: West Africa Time, WAT
- **utc offset**: +1
- **drives on**: Right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Angola, +244
- **cctld**: .ao
|
**Angola**, officially the **Republic of Angola**, is a country in southern Africa. It shares borders with Namibia in the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the north, and Zambia in the east. Its west border touches the Atlantic Ocean. Its coastline is 1600 kilometers. Angola's capital is Luanda. The country has many natural resources. Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa. The capital and most populated city of Angola is Luanda.
Angola is a member state of the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone and the Southern African Development Community.
## History
Portugal built up its power in Angola from the late 15th to the middle 20th century. After independence there was a civil war from 1975 to 2002. Cuba and the Soviet Bloc supported the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). South Africa supported the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) until the end of apartheid. The war ended after the rebel leader Jonas Savimbi was killed.
## Geography
Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, the Republic of the Congo via the exclave of Cabinda, and the South Atlantic Ocean in the west.
## Climate
Angola's average temperature on the coast is in the winter and in the summer. It has two seasons; dry (May to October) and hot rainy (November to April).
## Demographics
Angola had a population of 25,789,024 in 2014.
## Provinces
Angola is divided into eighteen provinces.
|Map key|Province|Capital||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|{| class="wikitable sortable"||||
|1|Bengo|Caxito||
|2|Benguela|Benguela||
|3|Bié|Kuito||
|4|Cabinda|Cabinda||
|5|Cuando Cubango|Menongue||
|6|Cuanza Norte|N'dalatando||
|7|Cuanza Sul|Sumbe||
|8|Cunene|Ondjiva||
|9|Huambo|Huambo||
|10|Huíla|Lubango||
|11|Luanda|Luanda||
|12|Lunda Norte|Lucapa||
|13|Lunda Sul|Saurimo||
|14|Malanje|Malanje||
|15|Moxico|Luena||
|16|Namibe|Namibe||
|17|Uíge|Uíge||
|18|Zaire|M'banza-Kongo|}|
See List of settlements in Angola for the cities and towns in the country.
## Related pages
- Angola at the Olympics
- Angola national football team
- List of rivers of Angola
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Angola
- **common name**: Angola
- **image flag**: Flag of Angola.svg
- **image coat**: Emblem of the People's Republic of Angola (1975-1992).png
- **symbol type**: Emblem
- **national anthem**: "Angola Avante"
()
- **capital**: Luanda
- **religion year**: 2015
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: Portuguese language, Portuguese
- **languages2 type**: National languages
- **ethnic groups**: 37% Ovimbundu
25% Ambundu
13% Kongo people, Bakongo
21% Other African
2% Mestiço (mixed European and African)
1% Overseas Chinese, Chinese
1% White Africans of European ancestry, European
- **ethnic groups year**: 2000
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Dominant-party system, dominant-party Presidential system, presidential Republic, constitutional republic under an authoritarian dictatorship
- **leader title1**: President of Angola, President
- **leader name1**: João Lourenço
- **leader title2**: Vice President of Angola, Vice President
- **leader name2**: Bornito de Sousa
- **legislature**: National Assembly (Angola), National Assembly
- **sovereignty type**: History of Angola, Formation
- **established event1**: Angolan War of Independence, Independence from Portugal, under People's Republic of Angola, Communist rule
- **established date1**: 11 November 1975
- **established event2**: United Nations United Nations Security Council Resolution 397, full membership
- **established date2**: 22 November 1976
- **established event3**: Constitution of Angola, Current constitution
- **established date3**: 21 January 2010
- **area km2**: 1246700
- **area rank**: 22nd
- **area sq mi**: 481354
- **percent water**: negligible
- **population estimate**: 31,127,674
- **population census**: 25,789,024
- **population estimate year**: 2020
- **population estimate rank**: 46th
- **population census year**: 2014
- **population density km2**: 24.97
- **population density sq mi**: 64.65
- **population density rank**: 157th
- **gdp ppp**: $208.034 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp rank**: 64th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $6,850
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 107th
- **gdp nominal**: $124.600 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal rank**: 61st
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $4,101
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 91st
- **gini**: 51.3
- **gini year**: 2018
- **hdi**: 0.581
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 148th
- **currency**: Angolan kwanza, Kwanza
- **currency code**: AOA
- **time zone**: West Africa Time, WAT
- **utc offset**: +1
- **drives on**: Right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Angola, +244
- **cctld**: .ao
|
medium
| false
| false
|
54
|
Argentina
|
**Argentina**, officially the **Argentine Republic**, is a country in [South America](1989). Argentina is the second-largest [country](121) in [South America](1989) and the eighth-largest country in the world.
[Spanish](6432) is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking [Italian](8249), [German](3346), [English](2843), [Quechua](7079) and even [Welsh](10124) in [Patagonia](341534).
In eastern Argentina is [Buenos Aires](10745), the [capital](1968) of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest [cities](144) in Argentina are [Buenos Aires](10745), [Córdoba](50844), [Rosario](53942), [Mendoza](92922), [La Plata](92921), Tucumán, [Mar del Plata](50818), Salta, [Santa Fe](65303), [Neuquén](479579) and [Bahía Blanca](92942).
Argentina is between the [Andes](7726) [mountain range](33948) in the west and the southern [Atlantic Ocean](1936) in the east and south. It is bordered by [Paraguay](11418) and [Bolivia](9289) in the north, [Brazil](104) and [Uruguay](10982) in the northeast, and [Chile](4008) in the west and south. It also claims the [Falkland Islands](7394) ([Spanish](6432): _Islas Malvinas_) and [South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands](25785). Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by [citizenship](3494) and not necessarily by [ethnicity](234). Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.
## History
The name **Argentina** comes from the [Latin](6592) _argentum_ ([silver](4679)) as the [Spanish](219832) [conquistador](63615)s believed the area had [silver](4679). In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).
The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the [Patagonia](341534) (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the [Inca Empire](52227) conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and [sweet potato](173296) however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.
Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.
Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by [José de San Martín](92939) in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.
In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was [Jorge Rafael Videla](398938). Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.
One of his successors was another general turned dictator, [Leopoldo Galtieri](454371). By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the [Falkland Islands](7394), starting the [Falklands War](178819). Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually [democracy](3195) was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.
In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in [Latin America](7170), though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the [G20 developing nations](297517).
In December 2023, Argentina was the invitee country but it did not joined to the [BRICS](295810) bloc.
## Politics
Argentina is a [federal republic](65166). The people of Argentina vote for a [President](4044) to rule them and Senators and [Deputies](184759) to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is [Javier Milei](1038129) since December 2023.
## Administrative divisions
Argentina is divided into 23 [province](6617)s (_provincias_; singular: _provincia_), and 1 city (commonly known as _capital federal_):
## Geography
Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the [Pampas](341877) in the central part of the country, [Patagonia](341534) in the southern part down to [Tierra del Fuego](328010); and the [Andes](7726) [mountain range](33948) along the western border with [Chile](4008), with the highest point in the province of [Mendoza](42275). Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the [Americas'](227444) highest mountain.
The most important rivers include the River Plate, [Paraguay](341860), [Bermejo](341862), [Colorado](341864), [Uruguay](166883) and the largest river, the [Paraná](341872). River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.
See [List of cities in Argentina](352899) for the many places people live in Argentina.
## Other information
The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from [Spain](219832), [Italy](363), [Russia,](361) [France](291), Germany , Arabs other Europeans countries and [Mestizo](19081) representing more than 90% of the total population of the country. More than 300,000 Roma gypsies live in Argentina. Since the 1990s, Romanian, Brazilian and Colombian gypsies arrived in Argentina.
[Football](342158) or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is [Pato](342160). Argentina has a number of highly ranked [Polo](127258) players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.
Argentina is a [Christian](170) country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.
[Medicine](3793) is socialized and so is [education](2113), making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well.
## Related pages
- [Argentina at the Olympics](299314)
- [Argentina national football team](172928)
- [List of rivers of Argentina](98543)
## References
<div class="references-small">
- [General information and maps](http://www.mapsofworld.com/argentina/index.html)
- [Geography and tourism](http://www.argentinatravelnet.com)
- [Pictures from Argentina grouped by provincia](http://www.guiafe.com.ar/argentina-pictures)
</div>
## Other websites
- [Argentina.gov.ar](http://www.argentina.gov.ar) - Official national portal
- [Gobierno Electrónico](http://www.info.gov.ar) - Official government website
- [Presidencia de la Nación](http://www.presidencia.gov.ar) - Official presidential website
- [Honorable Senado de la Nación](http://www.senado.gov.ar) - Official senatorial website
- [Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación](http://www.diputados.gov.ar) - Official lower house website
- [Secretaría de Turismo de la Nación](http://www.turismo.gov.ar) - Official tourism board website
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Argentine Republic
- **common name**: Argentina
- **image flag**: Flag of Argentina.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Argentina.svg
- **other symbol**:
- **other symbol type**:
- **image map**: Argentina orthographic.svg
- **map width**: 220px
- **capital**: Buenos Aires
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: Regional languages
- **languages2 type**: Other languages
- **languages2**: Argentine Italian, English language, English, Italian language, Italian, German language, German, Chinese language, Chinese, French language, French, Arabic language, Arabic, Portuguese language, Portuguese, Hindi language, Hindi, Russian language, Russian, Japanese language, Japanese, Dutch language, Dutch, Turkish language, Turkish
- **demonym**: Argentine
- **government type**: Federal republic, Federal Presidential system, presidential constitutional republic
- **leader title1**: President of Argentina, President
- **leader name1**: Javier Milei
- **leader title2**: Vice President of Argentina, Vice President
- **leader name2**: Victoria Villarruel
- **leader title3**: Argentine Chamber of Deputies, President of the Chamber of Deputies
- **leader name3**: Martín Menem
- **leader title4**: Supreme Court of Argentina, President of Supreme Court
- **leader name4**: Horacio Rosatti
- **legislature**: Argentine National Congress, Congress
- **upper house**: Argentine Senate, Senate
- **lower house**: Argentine Chamber of Deputies, Chamber of Deputies
- **sovereignty type**: Argentine War of Independence, Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from Spanish Empire, Spain
- **established event1**: May Revolution
- **established date1**: 25 May 1810
- **established event2**: Argentine Declaration of Independence, Declared
- **established date2**: 9 July 1816
- **established date3**: 1 May 1853
- **established date4**: 29 April 1857
- **area rank**: 8th
- **area km2**: 2780400
- **percent water**: 1.57
- **population estimate**: 42,669,500
- **population estimate year**: 2014
- **population census**: 40,117,096
- **population census year**: 2010
- **population census rank**: 32nd
- **population density km2**: 14.4
- **population density rank**: 212th
- **gdp ppp**: $927.382 billion
- **gdp ppp rank**: 25th
- **gdp ppp year**: 2014
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $22,101
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 55th
- **gdp nominal**: $536.155 billion
- **gdp nominal rank**: 24th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2014
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $12,778
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 60th
- **gini year**: 2011
- **gini change**: decrease
- **gini**: 43.6
- **hdi year**: 2013
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi**: 0.808
- **hdi rank**: 49th
- **currency**: Argentine peso, Peso (Dollar sign, $)
- **currency code**: ARS
- **time zone**: Time in Argentina, ART
- **utc offset**: −3
- **date format**: dd.mm.yyyy (Common Era, CE)
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: +54
- **cctld**: .ar
- **footnote a**: _De facto_ at all government levels. In addition, some provinces have official _de jure_ languages:
:Guaraní language, Guaraní in Corrientes Province.
:Kom language (South America), Kom, Moqoit language, Moqoit and Wichi language, Wichi, in Chaco Province.
- **footnote b**: Trains ride on left.
|
**Argentina**, officially the **Argentine Republic**, is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world.
Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia.
In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucumán, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, Neuquén and Bahía Blanca.
Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: _Islas Malvinas_) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.
## History
The name **Argentina** comes from the Latin _argentum_ (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).
The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.
Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.
Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by José de San Martín in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.
In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.
One of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War. Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.
In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations.
In December 2023, Argentina was the invitee country but it did not joined to the BRICS bloc.
## Politics
Argentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Javier Milei since December 2023.
## Administrative divisions
Argentina is divided into 23 provinces (_provincias_; singular: _provincia_), and 1 city (commonly known as _capital federal_):
## Geography
Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain.
The most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paraná. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.
See List of cities in Argentina for the many places people live in Argentina.
## Other information
The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Russia, France, Germany , Arabs other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country. More than 300,000 Roma gypsies live in Argentina. Since the 1990s, Romanian, Brazilian and Colombian gypsies arrived in Argentina.
Football or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.
Argentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.
Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well.
## Related pages
- Argentina at the Olympics
- Argentina national football team
- List of rivers of Argentina
## References
<div class="references-small">
- General information and maps
- Geography and tourism
- Pictures from Argentina grouped by provincia
</div>
## Other websites
- Argentina.gov.ar - Official national portal
- Gobierno Electrónico - Official government website
- Presidencia de la Nación - Official presidential website
- Honorable Senado de la Nación - Official senatorial website
- Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación - Official lower house website
- Secretaría de Turismo de la Nación - Official tourism board website
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Argentine Republic
- **common name**: Argentina
- **image flag**: Flag of Argentina.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Argentina.svg
- **other symbol**:
- **other symbol type**:
- **image map**: Argentina orthographic.svg
- **map width**: 220px
- **capital**: Buenos Aires
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: Regional languages
- **languages2 type**: Other languages
- **languages2**: Argentine Italian, English language, English, Italian language, Italian, German language, German, Chinese language, Chinese, French language, French, Arabic language, Arabic, Portuguese language, Portuguese, Hindi language, Hindi, Russian language, Russian, Japanese language, Japanese, Dutch language, Dutch, Turkish language, Turkish
- **demonym**: Argentine
- **government type**: Federal republic, Federal Presidential system, presidential constitutional republic
- **leader title1**: President of Argentina, President
- **leader name1**: Javier Milei
- **leader title2**: Vice President of Argentina, Vice President
- **leader name2**: Victoria Villarruel
- **leader title3**: Argentine Chamber of Deputies, President of the Chamber of Deputies
- **leader name3**: Martín Menem
- **leader title4**: Supreme Court of Argentina, President of Supreme Court
- **leader name4**: Horacio Rosatti
- **legislature**: Argentine National Congress, Congress
- **upper house**: Argentine Senate, Senate
- **lower house**: Argentine Chamber of Deputies, Chamber of Deputies
- **sovereignty type**: Argentine War of Independence, Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from Spanish Empire, Spain
- **established event1**: May Revolution
- **established date1**: 25 May 1810
- **established event2**: Argentine Declaration of Independence, Declared
- **established date2**: 9 July 1816
- **established date3**: 1 May 1853
- **established date4**: 29 April 1857
- **area rank**: 8th
- **area km2**: 2780400
- **percent water**: 1.57
- **population estimate**: 42,669,500
- **population estimate year**: 2014
- **population census**: 40,117,096
- **population census year**: 2010
- **population census rank**: 32nd
- **population density km2**: 14.4
- **population density rank**: 212th
- **gdp ppp**: $927.382 billion
- **gdp ppp rank**: 25th
- **gdp ppp year**: 2014
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $22,101
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 55th
- **gdp nominal**: $536.155 billion
- **gdp nominal rank**: 24th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2014
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $12,778
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 60th
- **gini year**: 2011
- **gini change**: decrease
- **gini**: 43.6
- **hdi year**: 2013
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi**: 0.808
- **hdi rank**: 49th
- **currency**: Argentine peso, Peso (Dollar sign, $)
- **currency code**: ARS
- **time zone**: Time in Argentina, ART
- **utc offset**: −3
- **date format**: dd.mm.yyyy (Common Era, CE)
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: +54
- **cctld**: .ar
- **footnote a**: _De facto_ at all government levels. In addition, some provinces have official _de jure_ languages:
:Guaraní language, Guaraní in Corrientes Province.
:Kom language (South America), Kom, Moqoit language, Moqoit and Wichi language, Wichi, in Chaco Province.
- **footnote b**: Trains ride on left.
|
high
| false
| false
|
55
|
Austria
|
**Austria** (, ; ), officially the **Republic of Austria** ( ), is a country in [Central Europe](45118). Around Austria are the countries of [Germany](219828), [Czech Republic](6439), [Slovakia](3467), [Hungary](3462), [Slovenia](3468), [Italy](363), [Switzerland](2161), and [Liechtenstein](3465).
The people in Austria speak [German](3346), a few also speak [Hungarian](19434), Slovenian and [Croatian](60229). The capital of Austria is [Vienna](2908) (_Wien_).
## History
Austria is more than 1000 years old. Its history can be followed to the [9th century](15635). At that time, the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name _Ostarrichi_ is first written in an official document from 996. Since then, that word developed into the Modern [German](3346) word _Österreich,_ which literally means "Eastern Empire."
### Ancient times
There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic Age, the time of the [Neanderthal](102275)s. They left works of art such as the [Venus of Willendorf](58772). In the Neolithic Age people, lived there to dig for [mineral](4668) resources, especially [copper](6709). [Ötzi](273174), a mummy found in a [glacier](34576) between Austria and Italy, is from that time.
During the [Bronze Age](5285), people built larger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were [mineral](4668) resources. [Salt mining](40127) began near [Hallstatt](107633). At that time, Celts began to form the first states.
### The Romans
The [Romans](24298) came 15 BC to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a [Roman province](152387). What is now Austria, was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The [border in the north](355322) was the [Danube](10271).
### Holy Roman Empire
From the [Early Middle Ages](26321), the area of modern-day Austria was part of the [Holy Roman Empire](6585). The capital of the Holy Roman Empire was the Austrian city of [Vienna](2908). The Austrian [Habsburg family](65789) became the rulers of the empire, and the son of the Holy Roman Emperor held the title of [Archduke of Austria](921163).
In 1806, [France](291) defeated the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with the [Confederation of the Rhine](146385). Former Holy Roman Emperor [Francis II](49882) became the Emperor of the new [Austrian Empire](72111), which later became [Austria-Hungary](40951).
### Modern history
In 1869, the first [postcard](498850)s were sent from Austria. Within three months, almost 3 million cards had been sold.
In 1914, [Franz Ferdinand](6166) was [assassinated](19142) in [Sarajevo](29802). Austria-Hungary declared war on [Serbia](5000) and this led to World War I. In 1918, both Austria and Hungary became [republics](4978) and split into separate countries that were much smaller tha before.
In 1938, Austria became part of [Nazi Germany](15678). However, Austrias became independent again in May 1945.
## Geography
Austria is a [mountain](3924)ous country since it is partially in the [Alps](15938). [Grossglockner](865990) is the tallest mountain in Austria. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country where the [Danube](10271) flows.
### Climate
Austria has a [continental climate](127027).
The highest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 8 August 2013 in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 19 February 1932 at Grünloch doline.
## Politics
Austria is a [democratic](3195) [republic](4978). The [President of Austria](343117) is the [head of state](4866) and the [Chancellor of Austria](343119) is the [head of government](5014).
It is a [neutral](556169) state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. It has been in the [United Nations](4549) since 1955 and in the [European Union](2132) since 1995.
Austria is also a [federal](65165) state and divided into nine states ():
1. [Burgenland](305532) (_Burgenland_)
1. Carinthia (_Kärnten_)
1. [Lower Austria](270795) (_Niederösterreich_)
1. [Upper Austria](190701) (_Oberösterreich_)
1. [Salzburg(erland)](176603) (_Salzburg_)
1. [Styria](343023) (_Steiermark_)
1. [Tyrol](343017) (_Tirol_)
1. [Vorarlberg](279448) (_Vorarlberg_)
1. [Vienna](2908) (_Wien_)
A new cabinet (Austria) was formed (February 2025). It is formed by political parties ÖVP, SPÖ, and Neos.
The [chancellor](12187) is [Christian Stocker](1197236) since 2025. Austria has been a [member-state](798) of the [United Nations](4549) since 1955, the [European Union](2132) since 1995 and [OPEC](32074) since 2019.
More information: _[States of Austria](571247)_.
### Music and arts
Many famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](4462), Joseph Haydn, [Franz Schubert](30072), [Anton Bruckner](53426), [Johann Strauss, Sr.](40251), [Johann Strauss, Jr.](40255) and [Gustav Mahler](40182). In modern times there were [Arnold Schoenberg](16191), [Anton Webern](72947) and [Alban Berg](51465), who belonged to the [Second Viennese School](343136).
Austria has many [artist](17867)s, there are [Gustav Klimt](200748), [Oskar Kokoschka](343141), [Egon Schiele](138713) or [Friedensreich Hundertwasser](282572), [Inge Morath](343145) or [Otto Wagner](305283) and scienc.
### Food
Famous Austrian dishes are [Wiener Schnitzel](180118), Apfelstrudel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, [Knödel](343197), [Sachertorte](305472) and [Tafelspitz](343200). But you can also find a lot of local dishes like Kärntner Reindling (a kind of cake), Kärntner Nudeln (also called "Kärntner Kasnudeln", you may write it "...nudln" too), Tiroler Knödl (may be written "...knödel"; ), Tiroler Schlipfkrapfen (another kind of "Kärntner Nudeln"), [Salzburger Nockerl](305473) (also may be written ..."Nockerln"), Steirisches Wurzelfleisch (..."Wurzlfleisch") or Sterz ("Steirischer Sterz").
### UNESCO World Heritage Sites
1. Historic Centre of [Salzburg](19371) — 1996
1. [Schönbrunn Palace](343202) — 1996
1. [Hallstatt](107633)–Dachstein [Salzkammergut](343214) Cultural Landscape — 1997
1. [Semmering Railway](343219) — 1998
1. Historic Centre of [Graz](33883) and Schloss Eggenberg — 1999 (extended in 2010)
1. [Wachau](343248) Cultural Landscape — 2000
1. Historic Centre of [Vienna](2908) — 2001
1. [Lake Neusiedl](343251) — 2001
## Related pages
- [List of rivers of Austria](98549)
## Other websites
- [Austria Maps](http://karteplan.com/osterreich/)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Austria
- **common name**: Austria
- **image flag**: Flag of Austria.svg
- **image coat**: Austria Bundesadler.svg
- **image map**: EU-Austria.svg
- **capital**: Vienna
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: German language, German
- **languages2 type**: Recognised languages
- **ethnic groups year**: 2012
- **religion year**: 2018
- **demonym**: Austrians, Austrian
- **government type**: Federation, Federal Parliament, parliamentary republic
- **leader title1**: President of Austria, President
- **leader name1**: Alexander Van der Bellen
- **leader title2**: Chancellor of Austria, Chancellor
- **leader name2**: Christian Stocker
- **leader title3**: Vice Chancellor of Austria, Vice Chancellor
- **leader name3**: Andreas Babler
- **legislature**: Austrian Parliament, Parliament
- **upper house**: Federal Council (Austria), Federal Council
- **lower house**: National Council (Austria), National Council
- **sovereignty type**: History of Austria, Establishment history
- **established event1**: Margraviate of Austria
- **established date1**: 976
- **established event2**: Duchy of Austria
- **established date2**: 1156
- **established event3**: Archduchy of Austria
- **established date3**: 1453
- **established event4**: Austrian Empire
- **established date4**: 1804
- **established event5**: Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire
- **established date5**: 1867
- **established event6**: First Republic of Austria, First Republic
- **established date6**: 1918
- **established event7**: Federal State of Austria, Federal State
- **established date7**: 1934
- **established event8**: Anschluss
- **established date8**: 1938
- **established event9**: Second Austrian Republic, Second Republic
- **established date9**: since 1945
- **established event10**: Austrian State Treaty, State Treaty in effect
- **established date10**: 27 July 1955
- **established event11**: United Nations Security Council Resolution 109, Admitted to the United Nations
- **established date11**: 14 December 1955
- **established event12**: 1995 enlargement of the European Union, Joined the European Union
- **established date12**: 1 January 1995
- **area km2**: 83,883
- **area rank**: 113th
- **area sq mi**: 32,385.86
- **percent water**: 0.84 (as of 2015)
- **population estimate**: 8,935,112
- **population estimate year**: October 2020
- **population estimate rank**: 97th
- **population density km2**: 106
- **population density sq mi**: 262.6
- **population density rank**: 106th
- **gdp ppp**: $461.432 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2018
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $51,936
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 17th
- **gdp nominal**: $446,315 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal rank**: 27th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $50,277
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 15th
- **gini**: 27.5
- **gini year**: 2019
- **gini change**: increase
- **gini rank**: 14th
- **hdi**: 0.922
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 18th
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Austria, +43
- **cctld**: .at
- **footnote a**: There is an official dictionary, the _Österreichisches Wörterbuch_, published on commission by the Austrian Ministry of Education.
- **footnote b**: Burgenland Croatian, Croatian, Czech language, Czech, Hungarian language, Hungarian, Romani language, Romani, Slovak language, Slovak, and Slovene language, Slovene are officially recognised by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML).
- **footnote c**: Austrian schilling before 1999; Virtual Euro since 1 January 1999; Euro since 1 January 2002.
- **footnote d**: The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
|
**Austria** (, ; ), officially the **Republic of Austria** ( ), is a country in Central Europe. Around Austria are the countries of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.
The people in Austria speak German, a few also speak Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian. The capital of Austria is Vienna (_Wien_).
## History
Austria is more than 1000 years old. Its history can be followed to the 9th century. At that time, the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name _Ostarrichi_ is first written in an official document from 996. Since then, that word developed into the Modern German word _Österreich,_ which literally means "Eastern Empire."
### Ancient times
There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic Age, the time of the Neanderthals. They left works of art such as the Venus of Willendorf. In the Neolithic Age people, lived there to dig for mineral resources, especially copper. Ötzi, a mummy found in a glacier between Austria and Italy, is from that time.
During the Bronze Age, people built larger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were mineral resources. Salt mining began near Hallstatt. At that time, Celts began to form the first states.
### The Romans
The Romans came 15 BC to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a Roman province. What is now Austria, was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The border in the north was the Danube.
### Holy Roman Empire
From the Early Middle Ages, the area of modern-day Austria was part of the Holy Roman Empire. The capital of the Holy Roman Empire was the Austrian city of Vienna. The Austrian Habsburg family became the rulers of the empire, and the son of the Holy Roman Emperor held the title of Archduke of Austria.
In 1806, France defeated the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with the Confederation of the Rhine. Former Holy Roman Emperor Francis II became the Emperor of the new Austrian Empire, which later became Austria-Hungary.
### Modern history
In 1869, the first postcards were sent from Austria. Within three months, almost 3 million cards had been sold.
In 1914, Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and this led to World War I. In 1918, both Austria and Hungary became republics and split into separate countries that were much smaller tha before.
In 1938, Austria became part of Nazi Germany. However, Austrias became independent again in May 1945.
## Geography
Austria is a mountainous country since it is partially in the Alps. Grossglockner is the tallest mountain in Austria. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country where the Danube flows.
### Climate
Austria has a continental climate.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 8 August 2013 in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 19 February 1932 at Grünloch doline.
## Politics
Austria is a democratic republic. The President of Austria is the head of state and the Chancellor of Austria is the head of government.
It is a neutral state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. It has been in the United Nations since 1955 and in the European Union since 1995.
Austria is also a federal state and divided into nine states ():
1. Burgenland (_Burgenland_)
1. Carinthia (_Kärnten_)
1. Lower Austria (_Niederösterreich_)
1. Upper Austria (_Oberösterreich_)
1. Salzburg(erland) (_Salzburg_)
1. Styria (_Steiermark_)
1. Tyrol (_Tirol_)
1. Vorarlberg (_Vorarlberg_)
1. Vienna (_Wien_)
A new cabinet (Austria) was formed (February 2025). It is formed by political parties ÖVP, SPÖ, and Neos.
The chancellor is Christian Stocker since 2025. Austria has been a member-state of the United Nations since 1955, the European Union since 1995 and OPEC since 2019.
More information: _States of Austria_.
### Music and arts
Many famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler. In modern times there were Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg, who belonged to the Second Viennese School.
Austria has many artists, there are Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Inge Morath or Otto Wagner and scienc.
### Food
Famous Austrian dishes are Wiener Schnitzel, Apfelstrudel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. But you can also find a lot of local dishes like Kärntner Reindling (a kind of cake), Kärntner Nudeln (also called "Kärntner Kasnudeln", you may write it "...nudln" too), Tiroler Knödl (may be written "...knödel"; ), Tiroler Schlipfkrapfen (another kind of "Kärntner Nudeln"), Salzburger Nockerl (also may be written ..."Nockerln"), Steirisches Wurzelfleisch (..."Wurzlfleisch") or Sterz ("Steirischer Sterz").
### UNESCO World Heritage Sites
1. Historic Centre of Salzburg — 1996
1. Schönbrunn Palace — 1996
1. Hallstatt–Dachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape — 1997
1. Semmering Railway — 1998
1. Historic Centre of Graz and Schloss Eggenberg — 1999 (extended in 2010)
1. Wachau Cultural Landscape — 2000
1. Historic Centre of Vienna — 2001
1. Lake Neusiedl — 2001
## Related pages
- List of rivers of Austria
## Other websites
- Austria Maps
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Austria
- **common name**: Austria
- **image flag**: Flag of Austria.svg
- **image coat**: Austria Bundesadler.svg
- **image map**: EU-Austria.svg
- **capital**: Vienna
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: German language, German
- **languages2 type**: Recognised languages
- **ethnic groups year**: 2012
- **religion year**: 2018
- **demonym**: Austrians, Austrian
- **government type**: Federation, Federal Parliament, parliamentary republic
- **leader title1**: President of Austria, President
- **leader name1**: Alexander Van der Bellen
- **leader title2**: Chancellor of Austria, Chancellor
- **leader name2**: Christian Stocker
- **leader title3**: Vice Chancellor of Austria, Vice Chancellor
- **leader name3**: Andreas Babler
- **legislature**: Austrian Parliament, Parliament
- **upper house**: Federal Council (Austria), Federal Council
- **lower house**: National Council (Austria), National Council
- **sovereignty type**: History of Austria, Establishment history
- **established event1**: Margraviate of Austria
- **established date1**: 976
- **established event2**: Duchy of Austria
- **established date2**: 1156
- **established event3**: Archduchy of Austria
- **established date3**: 1453
- **established event4**: Austrian Empire
- **established date4**: 1804
- **established event5**: Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire
- **established date5**: 1867
- **established event6**: First Republic of Austria, First Republic
- **established date6**: 1918
- **established event7**: Federal State of Austria, Federal State
- **established date7**: 1934
- **established event8**: Anschluss
- **established date8**: 1938
- **established event9**: Second Austrian Republic, Second Republic
- **established date9**: since 1945
- **established event10**: Austrian State Treaty, State Treaty in effect
- **established date10**: 27 July 1955
- **established event11**: United Nations Security Council Resolution 109, Admitted to the United Nations
- **established date11**: 14 December 1955
- **established event12**: 1995 enlargement of the European Union, Joined the European Union
- **established date12**: 1 January 1995
- **area km2**: 83,883
- **area rank**: 113th
- **area sq mi**: 32,385.86
- **percent water**: 0.84 (as of 2015)
- **population estimate**: 8,935,112
- **population estimate year**: October 2020
- **population estimate rank**: 97th
- **population density km2**: 106
- **population density sq mi**: 262.6
- **population density rank**: 106th
- **gdp ppp**: $461.432 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2018
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $51,936
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 17th
- **gdp nominal**: $446,315 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal rank**: 27th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $50,277
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 15th
- **gini**: 27.5
- **gini year**: 2019
- **gini change**: increase
- **gini rank**: 14th
- **hdi**: 0.922
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 18th
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Austria, +43
- **cctld**: .at
- **footnote a**: There is an official dictionary, the _Österreichisches Wörterbuch_, published on commission by the Austrian Ministry of Education.
- **footnote b**: Burgenland Croatian, Croatian, Czech language, Czech, Hungarian language, Hungarian, Romani language, Romani, Slovak language, Slovak, and Slovene language, Slovene are officially recognised by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML).
- **footnote c**: Austrian schilling before 1999; Virtual Euro since 1 January 1999; Euro since 1 January 2002.
- **footnote d**: The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
|
high
| false
| false
|
56
|
Armenia
|
**Armenia** (, _Hayastān_), officially the **Republic of Armenia**, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands in the [Caucasus](44000), spanning [Eastern Europe](45071) and [Western Asia](46436).
## History
The [Hittites](72611) and [Hayasa-Azzi](70971) may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of [Armenians](40472). It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 861 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the [Satrapy of Armenia](926969). The [Kingdom of Armenia](342394) reached its height under [Tigranes the Great](52309) in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt [Christianity](219595) as its [official state religion](54491) in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301.
### Foreign invasion
Between the [16th century](14230) and [19th century](3978), the traditional Armenian homeland composed of [Eastern Armenia](72540) and [Western Armenia](72541) came under the rule of the [Ottoman](16844) and [Iranian](435692) empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the [Russian Empire](31673), while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule.
### 20th century
During [World War I](219834), Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically
exterminated in the [Armenian Genocide](18059), perpetrated by Ottoman Young Turks. Around 1.5 million people were slaughtered and many more deported. In 1918, following the [Russian Revolution](23558), the Russian Empire ceased to exist and all non-Russian countries declared their independence. This led to the establishment of the [First Republic of Armenia](52480). By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the [Soviet Union](3600). In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the [Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic](63590), into full [Union republics](347432). The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
## Administrative divisions
Armenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of [Yerevan](29260) having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the _marzpet_ (_marz_ governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, appointed by the president.
, Armenia includes 915 communities, of which 49 are considered urban and 866 are considered rural.
|colspan="2"|Province|colspan="2"|Capital|Area (km²)|Population †|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|[Aragatsotn](342392)||[Ashtarak](342494)||style="text-align:right"|2,756|style="text-align:right"|132,925|
|[Ararat](342398)||[Artashat](342496)||style="text-align:right"|2,090|style="text-align:right"|260,367|
|[Armavir](342401)||[Armavir](342498)||style="text-align:right"|1,242|style="text-align:right"|265,770|
|[Gegharkunik](342437)||[Gavar](342595)||style="text-align:right"|5,349|style="text-align:right"|235,075|
|[Kotayk](342439)||[Hrazdan](342612)||style="text-align:right"|2,086|style="text-align:right"|254,397|
|[Lori](342441)||[Vanadzor](342617)||style="text-align:right"|3,799|style="text-align:right"|235,537|
|[Shirak](342444)||[Gyumri](63618)||style="text-align:right"|2,680|style="text-align:right"|251,941|
|[Syunik](342446)||[Kapan](342621)||style="text-align:right"|4,506|style="text-align:right"|141,771|
|Tavush||[Ijevan](342623)||style="text-align:right"|2,704|style="text-align:right"|128,609|
|Vayots Dzor||[Yeghegnadzor](342625)||style="text-align:right"|2,308|style="text-align:right"|52,324|
|[Yerevan](29260)||–|–|style="text-align:right"|223|style="text-align:right"|1,060,138|
† 2011 census
Sources: Area and population of provinces.
## Culture
Armenia is a majority [Christian](170) country, with [Europe](216)an and some wider [Eurasia](2025)n cultural influences. The Republic of Armenia recognizes the [Armenian Apostolic Church](62075), the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique [Armenian alphabet](63628) was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD. Armenia also has a minority of [Yazidis](342274) who settled in the country after fleeing persecution and have long established themselves into the wider Armenian society and have been integrated into the country. They speak both Armenian and their native Kurmanji.
Armenia is a member of the [Council of Europe](32209), the Eurasian Economic Union and the [Collective Security Treaty Organization](897854). Armenia supports the de facto independent [Republic of Artsakh](64291), which was proclaimed in 1991.
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Armenia
- **common name**: Armenia
- **native name**: Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն
- **image flag**: Flag of Armenia.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Armenia.svg
- **national motto**: Մեկ Ազգ, Մեկ Մշակույթ
_Mek Azg, Mek Mshakuyt_
"One Nation, One Culture"
- **national anthem**: Մեր Հայրենիք
_Mer Hayrenik_
"Our Fatherland"
- **image map**: Armenia locator map.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Armenia (green)
- **capital**: Yerevan
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: State language
- **languages**: Armenian language, Armenian
Persian language, Persian
- **ethnic groups year**: 2011
- **demonym**: Armenian
- **government type**: Unitary parliamentary republic
- **leader title1**: President
- **leader name1**: Vahagn Khachaturyan
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Nikol Pashinyan
- **leader title3**: President of the National Assembly
- **leader name3**: Alan Simonyan
- **legislature**: National Assembly
- **sovereignty type**: Establishment history
- **established event1**: Patriarch Hayk
- **established date1**: 2492 BC
- **established event2**: Kingdom of Urartu
- **established date2**: 860 BC–590 BC
- **established event3**: Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)
- **established date3**: 321 BC–428 AD
- **established event4**: Kingdom of Armenia (medieval)
- **established date4**: 885–1045
- **established event5**: Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
- **established date5**: 1198–1375
- **established event6**: First Republic of Armenia
- **established date6**: 28 May 1918
- **established event7**: Soviet conquest
- **established date7**: 29 November 1920
- **established event8**: Indepence restored
- **established date8**: 23 September 1991
- **established event9**: CIS Accesion
- **established date9**: 21 December 1991
- **established event10**: Admitted to the United Nations
- **established date10**: 2 March 1992
- **established event11**: Current constitution
- **established date11**: 5 July 1995
- **area km2**: 29,743
- **area rank**: 147th
- **population estimate**: 3,000,756
- **population census**: 3,018,854
- **population estimate year**: CIA 2022
- **population estimate rank**: 138th
- **population census year**: 2011
- **population density km2**: 101.5
- **population density sq mi**: 262.9
- **population density rank**: 99th
- **gdp ppp year**: 2021
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $14,701
- **gdp nominal year**: 2021
- **gdp nominal rank**: 127th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $4,595
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 104th
- **gini**: 29.9
- **gini year**: 2019
- **gini change**: decrease
- **hdi**: 0.776
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 81st
- **currency**: Armenian dram, Dram (Armenian dram sign, ֏)
- **currency code**: AMD
- **time zone**: Armenia Time, AMT
- **utc offset**: +4
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Armenia, +374
- **patron saint**: Gregory the Illuminator, St. Gregory
- **religion year**: 2011
- **area land km2**: 28,203
- **area water km2**: 1,540
|
**Armenia** (, _Hayastān_), officially the **Republic of Armenia**, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands in the Caucasus, spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
## History
The Hittites and Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of Armenians. It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 861 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official state religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301.
### Foreign invasion
Between the 16th century and 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule.
### 20th century
During World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically
exterminated in the Armenian Genocide, perpetrated by Ottoman Young Turks. Around 1.5 million people were slaughtered and many more deported. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Empire ceased to exist and all non-Russian countries declared their independence. This led to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
## Administrative divisions
Armenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of Yerevan having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the _marzpet_ (_marz_ governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, appointed by the president.
, Armenia includes 915 communities, of which 49 are considered urban and 866 are considered rural.
|colspan="2"|Province|colspan="2"|Capital|Area (km²)|Population †|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Aragatsotn||Ashtarak||style="text-align:right"|2,756|style="text-align:right"|132,925|
|Ararat||Artashat||style="text-align:right"|2,090|style="text-align:right"|260,367|
|Armavir||Armavir||style="text-align:right"|1,242|style="text-align:right"|265,770|
|Gegharkunik||Gavar||style="text-align:right"|5,349|style="text-align:right"|235,075|
|Kotayk||Hrazdan||style="text-align:right"|2,086|style="text-align:right"|254,397|
|Lori||Vanadzor||style="text-align:right"|3,799|style="text-align:right"|235,537|
|Shirak||Gyumri||style="text-align:right"|2,680|style="text-align:right"|251,941|
|Syunik||Kapan||style="text-align:right"|4,506|style="text-align:right"|141,771|
|Tavush||Ijevan||style="text-align:right"|2,704|style="text-align:right"|128,609|
|Vayots Dzor||Yeghegnadzor||style="text-align:right"|2,308|style="text-align:right"|52,324|
|Yerevan||–|–|style="text-align:right"|223|style="text-align:right"|1,060,138|
† 2011 census
Sources: Area and population of provinces.
## Culture
Armenia is a majority Christian country, with European and some wider Eurasian cultural influences. The Republic of Armenia recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD. Armenia also has a minority of Yazidis who settled in the country after fleeing persecution and have long established themselves into the wider Armenian society and have been integrated into the country. They speak both Armenian and their native Kurmanji.
Armenia is a member of the Council of Europe, the Eurasian Economic Union and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh, which was proclaimed in 1991.
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Armenia
- **common name**: Armenia
- **native name**: Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն
- **image flag**: Flag of Armenia.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Armenia.svg
- **national motto**: Մեկ Ազգ, Մեկ Մշակույթ
_Mek Azg, Mek Mshakuyt_
"One Nation, One Culture"
- **national anthem**: Մեր Հայրենիք
_Mer Hayrenik_
"Our Fatherland"
- **image map**: Armenia locator map.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Armenia (green)
- **capital**: Yerevan
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: State language
- **languages**: Armenian language, Armenian
Persian language, Persian
- **ethnic groups year**: 2011
- **demonym**: Armenian
- **government type**: Unitary parliamentary republic
- **leader title1**: President
- **leader name1**: Vahagn Khachaturyan
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Nikol Pashinyan
- **leader title3**: President of the National Assembly
- **leader name3**: Alan Simonyan
- **legislature**: National Assembly
- **sovereignty type**: Establishment history
- **established event1**: Patriarch Hayk
- **established date1**: 2492 BC
- **established event2**: Kingdom of Urartu
- **established date2**: 860 BC–590 BC
- **established event3**: Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)
- **established date3**: 321 BC–428 AD
- **established event4**: Kingdom of Armenia (medieval)
- **established date4**: 885–1045
- **established event5**: Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
- **established date5**: 1198–1375
- **established event6**: First Republic of Armenia
- **established date6**: 28 May 1918
- **established event7**: Soviet conquest
- **established date7**: 29 November 1920
- **established event8**: Indepence restored
- **established date8**: 23 September 1991
- **established event9**: CIS Accesion
- **established date9**: 21 December 1991
- **established event10**: Admitted to the United Nations
- **established date10**: 2 March 1992
- **established event11**: Current constitution
- **established date11**: 5 July 1995
- **area km2**: 29,743
- **area rank**: 147th
- **population estimate**: 3,000,756
- **population census**: 3,018,854
- **population estimate year**: CIA 2022
- **population estimate rank**: 138th
- **population census year**: 2011
- **population density km2**: 101.5
- **population density sq mi**: 262.9
- **population density rank**: 99th
- **gdp ppp year**: 2021
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $14,701
- **gdp nominal year**: 2021
- **gdp nominal rank**: 127th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $4,595
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 104th
- **gini**: 29.9
- **gini year**: 2019
- **gini change**: decrease
- **hdi**: 0.776
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 81st
- **currency**: Armenian dram, Dram (Armenian dram sign, ֏)
- **currency code**: AMD
- **time zone**: Armenia Time, AMT
- **utc offset**: +4
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Armenia, +374
- **patron saint**: Gregory the Illuminator, St. Gregory
- **religion year**: 2011
- **area land km2**: 28,203
- **area water km2**: 1,540
|
high
| false
| false
|
57
|
Archaeology
|
**Archaeology**, or **archeology**, is the study of the human [past](13989). It looks at remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains may include old [coin](162)s, [tool](158772)s, [building](6081)s, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.
## Fieldwork
When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As [settlements](326890) (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. [Ancient](67559) [Rome](2875), for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time.
When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a [university](884) or [museum](14057). Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their [research](23574) so others can understand what they learned.
## Fields of interest
Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include [Ancient Egypt](15034) (these specialists are called Egyptologists), [Ancient China](29263), or the [Vikings](205979). Archaeologist<nowiki/>s study every [civilization](16146) that is known, especially the ones where there is no written [history](324). They can study any time period. For example, one might study the [beginning of human life](24297) in [Africa](1942), or study [World War II](219837). Marine archaeologists study things that are now [underwater](121334). They search for [sunken ships](525037) or [cities](144) that have been lost under the sea.
## Subdisciplines
There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other.
### Marine archaeology
Archaeology relating to [ocean](103595)<nowiki/>s, [sea](420870)<nowiki/>s and [lake](4031)<nowiki/>s is usually done [underwater](121334). It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. "Maritime archaeology" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring. A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and [restoration](47476) of the ship [Vasa](202691).
### Ice-patch archaeology
When a [glacier](34576) melts, thingss that were captured in it can be seen. The recovery and study of these objects is called "ice-patch archaeology". A famous example is [Ötzi the Iceman](273174).
### Historical archaeology
[Historical archaeology](981853) deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral tradition<nowiki/>s. Or it can be defined as "the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition." A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg.
### Industrial archaeology
This relatively new branch of archaeology consists of "the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past."
### Archaeozoology
Archaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation.
### Paleoethnobotany
Paleoethnobotany (also spelled palaeoethnobotany), or archaeobotany, is the study of past human-plant relations through the recovery and analysis of plant remains from the past, usually from archaeological sites. People who do this can be archaeologists, botanists, or chemists.
### Extraterrestrial archaeology
Any archaeology done outside of Earth is extraterrestrial archaeology. For example, people do archaeological work on satellites and on the Moon. The first extraterrestrial archaeology was done by a [NASA](24512) astronaut, Kayla Barron, on the [International Space Station](64445): "On 14 January 2022, she used bright yellow adhesive tape to mark out the corners of 1 sq m (10.7 sq ft) on a science rack in a module of the ISS – like an archaeological trench – and repeated the process in five other locations, ranging from the galley to the toilet."
### Experimental archaeology
This field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient [culture](3476)<nowiki/>s. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down.
## Sites
In many countries, [government](312)s and other groups of people protect important [archaeological site](108008)s so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.
Sometimes archaeological sites are found when [foundations](467148) are dug for new [building](6081)s. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.
## Related pages
- [Anthropology](2110)
- [Archaeological site](108008)
- [Artifact (culture)](107057)
- [Civilization](16146)
- [Paleography](420954)
- [Social sciences](48767)
## Other websites
- [Archaeology](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Archaeology) -Citizendium
|
**Archaeology**, or **archeology**, is the study of the human past. It looks at remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains may include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.
## Fieldwork
When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time.
When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned.
## Fields of interest
Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologist<nowiki/>s study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.
## Subdisciplines
There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other.
### Marine archaeology
Archaeology relating to ocean<nowiki/>s, sea<nowiki/>s and lake<nowiki/>s is usually done underwater. It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. "Maritime archaeology" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring. A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and restoration of the ship Vasa.
### Ice-patch archaeology
When a glacier melts, thingss that were captured in it can be seen. The recovery and study of these objects is called "ice-patch archaeology". A famous example is Ötzi the Iceman.
### Historical archaeology
Historical archaeology deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral tradition<nowiki/>s. Or it can be defined as "the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition." A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg.
### Industrial archaeology
This relatively new branch of archaeology consists of "the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past."
### Archaeozoology
Archaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation.
### Paleoethnobotany
Paleoethnobotany (also spelled palaeoethnobotany), or archaeobotany, is the study of past human-plant relations through the recovery and analysis of plant remains from the past, usually from archaeological sites. People who do this can be archaeologists, botanists, or chemists.
### Extraterrestrial archaeology
Any archaeology done outside of Earth is extraterrestrial archaeology. For example, people do archaeological work on satellites and on the Moon. The first extraterrestrial archaeology was done by a NASA astronaut, Kayla Barron, on the International Space Station: "On 14 January 2022, she used bright yellow adhesive tape to mark out the corners of 1 sq m (10.7 sq ft) on a science rack in a module of the ISS – like an archaeological trench – and repeated the process in five other locations, ranging from the galley to the toilet."
### Experimental archaeology
This field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient culture<nowiki/>s. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down.
## Sites
In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important archaeological sites so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.
Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.
## Related pages
- Anthropology
- Archaeological site
- Artifact (culture)
- Civilization
- Paleography
- Social sciences
## Other websites
- Archaeology -Citizendium
|
medium
| false
| false
|
58
|
Application
|
The word **application** has several uses.
- In [medicine](3793), 'application' means putting some [drug](9089) or ointment usually on the [skin](772) where it is absorbed into the [human body](353).
- In computer software, an application is a type of [program](2957) which is designed for a particular function. Example: word processing. It is most used to mean a [Mobile app](502100).
- In [business](6642) or [government](312), an application is a (usually [paper](3319)) [form](63408) filled out and handed in by a person seeking a privilege from a [state](798) or [company](114693), such as work, [credit](112641), some type of [license](444) or [permit](40522), or a [place to live](4900).
- At work, generally [engineering](2816), when dealing with certain [material](4363)s or objects, an "application" is a purpose that material or object can be used for. [Wood](6103) and [steel](8299) have many applications.
|
The word **application** has several uses.
- In medicine, 'application' means putting some drug or ointment usually on the skin where it is absorbed into the human body.
- In computer software, an application is a type of program which is designed for a particular function. Example: word processing. It is most used to mean a Mobile app.
- In business or government, an application is a (usually paper) form filled out and handed in by a person seeking a privilege from a state or company, such as work, credit, some type of license or permit, or a place to live.
- At work, generally engineering, when dealing with certain materials or objects, an "application" is a purpose that material or object can be used for. Wood and steel have many applications.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
62
|
Animal
|
**Animals** (or **Metazoa**) are living creatures with [many cells](21995) that make up the kingdom **Animalia**.
Animals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are [parasites](30270). Animals, [plants](628), [fungi](11614), and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes.
The study of animals is called [zoology](954). The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.
Most animals are [mobile](41171), meaning they can move around. Animals take in [oxygen](2949), and give out [carbon dioxide](11599). This [cellular respiration](14536) is part of their [metabolism](511) (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different [cell membrane](15293)s to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi.
Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic [organism](5812)s, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their [tissue](13997)s.
## Grouping animals
There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a [biological classification](34884). Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million.
Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the [invertebrate](18880)s and the [vertebrate](5899)s. Vertebrates have a backbone, or [spine](48417); invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an [adaptive immune system](282906), which may be partly responsible for their size and success.
Vertebrates are:
- [Fish](285) (or 'fishes': both ways are correct)
- Amphibia
- [Reptile](15887)s
- [Bird](3707)s
- [Mammal](525)s
Some invertebrates are:
- [Insect](3750)s
- [Spider](19903)s
- Crustacea
- [Mollusc](22764)s (like a [snail](31086) or [squid](18176))
- [worm](343881)s
- [jellyfish](15300)
## Life styles
The animal mode of [nutrition](107489) is called [heterotroph](47652)ic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called [herbivore](4618)s. Other animals eat only [meat](4646) and are called [carnivore](2876)s. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called [omnivore](4616)s. Some animals get their energy from [photosynthetic](3518) [protist](21723)s that live inside them.
The [environment](13637)s animals live in vary greatly. By the process of [evolution](8740), animals [adapt](191821) to the habitats they live in. A [fish](285) is adapted to its life in water and a [spider](19903) is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A [mammal](525) living on the savannahs of [East Africa](124804) lives quite a different life from a [dolphin](14162) or [porpoise](30975) catching fish in the sea.
The [fossil](13374) record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the [Ediacaran](218633) period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on [Earth](219) today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran.
## Related pages
- [List of animal phyla](220225)
- [Ethology](42084), the study of animal behaviour
|
**Animals** (or **Metazoa**) are living creatures with many cells that make up the kingdom **Animalia**.
Animals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are parasites. Animals, plants, fungi, and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes.
The study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.
Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi.
Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues.
## Grouping animals
There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million.
Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success.
Vertebrates are:
- Fish (or 'fishes': both ways are correct)
- Amphibia
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals
Some invertebrates are:
- Insects
- Spiders
- Crustacea
- Molluscs (like a snail or squid)
- worms
- jellyfish
## Life styles
The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores. Some animals get their energy from photosynthetic protists that live inside them.
The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea.
The fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran.
## Related pages
- List of animal phyla
- Ethology, the study of animal behaviour
|
high
| false
| false
|
63
|
Acceleration
|
**Acceleration** is a measure of how [fast](791) [velocity](898) changes. Acceleration is the change of velocity [divided](56429) by the change of [time](3219). Acceleration is a [vector](3662), and therefore includes both a [size](5526) and a [direction](5547). **Acceleration** is also a change in speed and direction. There is:
Speed (a scalar quantity) (uses no direction)
1. Distance is how far you traveled.
1. Time is how long it took you to travel.
1. Speed is how fast you are moving - Speed = Distance / Time
Velocity (a vector quantity) (uses a direction)
1. Displacement is how much your position has changed in what direction.
1. Velocity is how quickly your position is changing and in what direction.
1. Velocity = Displacement / Time
The measurement of how fast acceleration changes is called [jerk](28111).
## Examples
- An object was moving [north](3777) at 10 meters per second. The object speeds up and is now moving north at 17 meters per [second](3266). The object has accelerated.
- An [apple](39) is falling. It starts falling at 0 meters per second. At the end of the first second, the apple is moving at 9.8 meters per second. The apple has accelerated. At the end of the second second, the apple is moving down at 19.6 meters per second. The apple has accelerated again.
- Jane is walking [east](4033) at 3 kilometers per [hour](3455). Jane's velocity does not change. Jane's acceleration is zero.
- Tom was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom turns and walks [south](3595) at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom has had a nonzero acceleration.
- Sally was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Sally slows down. After, Sally walks east at 1.5 kilometers per hour. Sally has had a nonzero acceleration.
- [Acceleration due to gravity](359683)
## Finding acceleration
Acceleration is the [rate](629774) of change of the [velocity](898) of an object. Acceleration can be found by using:
where
- Is the velocity at the start
- Is the velocity at the end
- Is the time at the start
- Is the time at the end
Sometimes the change in velocity is written as Δ. Sometimes the change in time is written as Δt.
In difficult situations, the acceleration can be calculated using [mathematics](467): in [calculus](161), acceleration is the [derivative](242760) of the velocity (concerning time),.
### Units of measurement
Acceleration has its units of measurement. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s<sup>2</sup>).
### Other words
Acceleration can be positive or [negative](18528). When the acceleration is negative (but the velocity does not change direction), it is sometimes called deceleration. For example, when a car brakes it decelerates. Physicists usually only use the word "acceleration".
## Newton's second law of motion
Newton's laws of motion are [rule](12655)s for how things [move](508). These rules are called "[law](426)s of motion". [Isaac Newton](5123) is the [scientist](748) who first wrote down the main laws of motion.
According to [Newton's Second Law of Motion](28036), the force something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's [mass](513) (the amount of "stuff" the object is made from or how "heavy" it is).
The formula of Newton's Second Law of Motion is ,
where is the acceleration, is the force, and the mass.
This formula is very well-known, and it is very important in [physics](591). Newton's Second Law of Motion, in short "Newton's Second Law", is often one of the first things that physics students learn.
## Deceleration
Deceleration is negative or backwards acceleration. This means that something slows down instead of speeding up. For example, when a car brakes, it is decelerating.
|
**Acceleration** is a measure of how fast velocity changes. Acceleration is the change of velocity divided by the change of time. Acceleration is a vector, and therefore includes both a size and a direction. **Acceleration** is also a change in speed and direction. There is:
Speed (a scalar quantity) (uses no direction)
1. Distance is how far you traveled.
1. Time is how long it took you to travel.
1. Speed is how fast you are moving - Speed = Distance / Time
Velocity (a vector quantity) (uses a direction)
1. Displacement is how much your position has changed in what direction.
1. Velocity is how quickly your position is changing and in what direction.
1. Velocity = Displacement / Time
The measurement of how fast acceleration changes is called jerk.
## Examples
- An object was moving north at 10 meters per second. The object speeds up and is now moving north at 17 meters per second. The object has accelerated.
- An apple is falling. It starts falling at 0 meters per second. At the end of the first second, the apple is moving at 9.8 meters per second. The apple has accelerated. At the end of the second second, the apple is moving down at 19.6 meters per second. The apple has accelerated again.
- Jane is walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Jane's velocity does not change. Jane's acceleration is zero.
- Tom was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom turns and walks south at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom has had a nonzero acceleration.
- Sally was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Sally slows down. After, Sally walks east at 1.5 kilometers per hour. Sally has had a nonzero acceleration.
- Acceleration due to gravity
## Finding acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object. Acceleration can be found by using:
where
- Is the velocity at the start
- Is the velocity at the end
- Is the time at the start
- Is the time at the end
Sometimes the change in velocity is written as Δ. Sometimes the change in time is written as Δt.
In difficult situations, the acceleration can be calculated using mathematics: in calculus, acceleration is the derivative of the velocity (concerning time),.
### Units of measurement
Acceleration has its units of measurement. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s<sup>2</sup>).
### Other words
Acceleration can be positive or negative. When the acceleration is negative (but the velocity does not change direction), it is sometimes called deceleration. For example, when a car brakes it decelerates. Physicists usually only use the word "acceleration".
## Newton's second law of motion
Newton's laws of motion are rules for how things move. These rules are called "laws of motion". Isaac Newton is the scientist who first wrote down the main laws of motion.
According to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the force something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's mass (the amount of "stuff" the object is made from or how "heavy" it is).
The formula of Newton's Second Law of Motion is ,
where is the acceleration, is the force, and the mass.
This formula is very well-known, and it is very important in physics. Newton's Second Law of Motion, in short "Newton's Second Law", is often one of the first things that physics students learn.
## Deceleration
Deceleration is negative or backwards acceleration. This means that something slows down instead of speeding up. For example, when a car brakes, it is decelerating.
|
high
| false
| false
|
68
|
Black pudding
|
**Black pudding** is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is [food](280) made by [cooking](146) down the [blood](2950) of any [mammal](525) (usually [pig](14167)s or [cattle](5450)) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled.
## Types of black pudding
In [Great Britain](3051), blood sausage is called "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, [suet](546897), [bread](4475), [barley](11234) and oatmeal. [Bury](49199) is well known for them. The most common kind of German _Blutwurst_ is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm.
Other kinds of blood sausage include _boudin noir_ ([France](291)), _boudin rouge_ (Creole and Cajun) and _morcilla_ ([Spain](219832)).
## History
A [legend](10010) says that blood sausage was invented in a [bet](3997) between two [Bavarian](844223) [butcher](45745)s drunk on the alcoholic drink [absinthe](83800) during the [14th century](15590). [Homer](4964)'s _Odyssey_ from Ancient [Greece](2133) says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...".
## Related pages
- [Sausage](710)
|
**Black pudding** is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled.
## Types of black pudding
In Great Britain, blood sausage is called "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. Bury is well known for them. The most common kind of German _Blutwurst_ is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm.
Other kinds of blood sausage include _boudin noir_ (France), _boudin rouge_ (Creole and Cajun) and _morcilla_ (Spain).
## History
A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's _Odyssey_ from Ancient Greece says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...".
## Related pages
- Sausage
|
medium
| false
| false
|
69
|
Boot device
|
A **boot device** is used to start a [computer](112). It is named after a [boot](70) which fits on the [foot](1018172). The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps."
Before a computer can operate normally, it must have [operating system](587) instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions. A boot device loads the operating system into the [memory](3702) of the computer.
Devices that can boot a computer are usually **boot disks** or **boot drives** (normally a hard drive or [Solid State Drive](311908), but can be a [floppy disk](12460), [flash drive](9060) or a CD). Some [network computers](316702) use _boot chips_ that get the [operating system](587) over a [network](537). Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the [mobile phone](26786) network. **Boot card** standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full [privacy](602643) and access to all application software they own. There are also **boot boards** or **boot _add-in_ cards** that are more permanent than boot cards.
Some people refer to the boot device as just a **boot** and non-boot devices as **data devices**, although it is not the [computer](112) but the [operating system](587) that cares about the difference between these.
## Origin
The boot in **boot device** is the same as [booting](6364) (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it.
## Related pages
- [Booting](6364)
- Boot Loop
|
A **boot device** is used to start a computer. It is named after a boot which fits on the foot. The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps."
Before a computer can operate normally, it must have operating system instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions. A boot device loads the operating system into the memory of the computer.
Devices that can boot a computer are usually **boot disks** or **boot drives** (normally a hard drive or Solid State Drive, but can be a floppy disk, flash drive or a CD). Some network computers use _boot chips_ that get the operating system over a network. Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the mobile phone network. **Boot card** standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full privacy and access to all application software they own. There are also **boot boards** or **boot _add-in_ cards** that are more permanent than boot cards.
Some people refer to the boot device as just a **boot** and non-boot devices as **data devices**, although it is not the computer but the operating system that cares about the difference between these.
## Origin
The boot in **boot device** is the same as booting (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it.
## Related pages
- Booting
- Boot Loop
|
medium
| false
| false
|
70
|
Boot
|
A **boot** is a type of [footwear](4712) that protects the [foot](1018172) and [ankle](19503). Boots are higher and larger than [shoe](4711)s and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the [calves](3033) (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with _bootstraps_ or _bootlaces_. Some also have **spats** or _gaiters_ to keep water out. Most have a very strong _boot sole_, the bottom part of a boot.
## Types of boots
- **Rain boots** (or rubber boots) are made from [rubber](30010) or [plastic](646). Rain boots protect a person's feet from [water](939) and [rain](3990). People who work on [fishing](10000) boats and [farmer](4912)s wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in [chemical](1013597) factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals.
- **Winter boots** are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as [Canada](219589) and [Sweden](2136) wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as [leather](443), fabric, or [plastic](646). Winter boots are [insulated](1124775) with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.
- **Work boots** (or "[construction](63310) boots") are designed for people who work in construction or [factory](14624) jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of [steel](8299) in the sole to protect the foot from sharp [nail](7161)s. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.
- **Fashion boots** are boots that are worn for style than for protection. Usually the term is used for [women's](5505) boots. These kind of boots come in many heights, where the top ends at the ankle, the knee, or the thigh. The ones that are tall are usually closed by a [zipper](270643) or can stretch for putting it on easily. This is because using shoe laces would take time for the taller types.
|
A **boot** is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with _bootstraps_ or _bootlaces_. Some also have **spats** or _gaiters_ to keep water out. Most have a very strong _boot sole_, the bottom part of a boot.
## Types of boots
- **Rain boots** (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals.
- **Winter boots** are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.
- **Work boots** (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.
- **Fashion boots** are boots that are worn for style than for protection. Usually the term is used for women's boots. These kind of boots come in many heights, where the top ends at the ankle, the knee, or the thigh. The ones that are tall are usually closed by a zipper or can stretch for putting it on easily. This is because using shoe laces would take time for the taller types.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
71
|
Bankruptcy
|
**Bankruptcy** is a [legal process](426) which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough [money](479) to pay all of its [debt](19145)s. Legally they are [insolvent](511476).
Where it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a _trustee in bankruptcy_. This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's [asset](46642)<nowiki/>s. Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible. After the process is complete the person is _discharged from bankruptcy_, and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged.
Where it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a _liquidator_. The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything. Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then _dissolved_ and no longer exists. Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does.
## Insolvency or bankruptcy
People often confuse the terms **bankruptcy** and **[insolvency](511476)**, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.
## Alternatives to bankruptcy
Many countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process.
In various countries, individual people can try and reach _individual voluntary arrangements_ (or IVAs) with their creditors. This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts. There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and they go by various different names in different countries, but in many countries they are called _schemes of arrangement_.
## Bankruptcy protection
In many countries a [company](114693) or [business](6642) can ask the courts for _bankruptcy protection_ to try and protect the business so that the [creditor](38957)s cannot destroy all of the physical capital and goodwill by breaking it apart and moving it away. The aim of this is to provide more [time](3219) for the business to reorganise itself and to work out a new deal between the owners and the people with whom the business owes money. In many countries this is called _going into administration_.
However, not all countries have bankruptcy protection laws for businesses.
## Debt slavery
Often a [creditor](38957) threatens a debtor with debt slavery in many parts of the world. In some cases the debtor does not know that they have a right to go **bankrupt**. This is a [human rights](13925) problem in some countries. Also, some creditors continue to harass a debtor even though bankruptcy laws say they should not, hoping that the debtor will pay them money that they do not deserve.
## United States
Bankruptcy in the United States falls mostly under federal law, Title 11 of the [United States](219587) [Code](426) (Bankruptcy Code). The types of bankruptcy available in the United States are named after the primary divisions, or "chapters", of that law. The person or business that files a bankruptcy case is known as the _debtor_.
When a bankruptcy case is filed, a trustee is chosen by the court. The trustee has authority over the property of the bankrupt person or business and may use some of the debtor's [asset](46642)s to pay the [creditor](38957)s. After a bankruptcy is filed, creditors are notified that they are to stop trying to collect money directly from the debtor and are to make claims for payment to the bankruptcy court.
### Chapter 7
The most common form of bankruptcy is the Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, which can be filed by [business](6642)es or individuals. It is also called liquidation bankruptcy because some of a debtor's [property](3336) may be sold (liquidated) to satisfy creditors. When a business is in debt which it cannot pay, it may ask or be forced to file bankruptcy in court under Chapter 7. This usually makes a [company](114693) stop doing business. [Employee](46899)s often lose their jobs when company files for chapter 7.
### Chapter 11
Chapter 11 bankruptcy is a complicated type of bankruptcy that reorganizes the debtor's finances, usually reducing the amount of debt owed and changing debt repayment terms. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy case allows a business to keep running while it finds ways to reduce and arrange payment of its debts.
Almost all Chapter 11 bankruptcies are filed by businesses. Ordinary people do not usually file Chapter 11 bankruptcy, because a Chapter 13 bankruptcy will almost always be cheaper and easier for them.
### Chapter 13
Chapter 13 is the most popular form of bankruptcy in the United States for ordinary people. In a Chapter 13 bankruptcy some of your debts may be forgiven (discharged), but you will have to pay back a portion of your debt. The debt repayment plan is supervised by the bankruptcy court and usually lasts for three to five years. Businesses cannot file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy.
### Other bankruptcy chapters
Less common forms of bankruptcy may be filed under Chapter 9 and Chapter 12 of the bankruptcy code.
- Chapter 9 bankruptcy allows [municipalities](40994), smaller units of government such as cities and towns, to restructure their debts.
- Chapter 12 bankruptcy is a special type of bankruptcy for family farms and fishermen. It combines elements of Chapter 11 and Chapter 13 bankruptcy to allow smaller farms and fishing businesses to stay open while they restructure their debts.
|
**Bankruptcy** is a legal process which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough money to pay all of its debts. Legally they are insolvent.
Where it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a _trustee in bankruptcy_. This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's asset<nowiki/>s. Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible. After the process is complete the person is _discharged from bankruptcy_, and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged.
Where it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a _liquidator_. The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything. Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then _dissolved_ and no longer exists. Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does.
## Insolvency or bankruptcy
People often confuse the terms **bankruptcy** and **insolvency**, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.
## Alternatives to bankruptcy
Many countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process.
In various countries, individual people can try and reach _individual voluntary arrangements_ (or IVAs) with their creditors. This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts. There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and they go by various different names in different countries, but in many countries they are called _schemes of arrangement_.
## Bankruptcy protection
In many countries a company or business can ask the courts for _bankruptcy protection_ to try and protect the business so that the creditors cannot destroy all of the physical capital and goodwill by breaking it apart and moving it away. The aim of this is to provide more time for the business to reorganise itself and to work out a new deal between the owners and the people with whom the business owes money. In many countries this is called _going into administration_.
However, not all countries have bankruptcy protection laws for businesses.
## Debt slavery
Often a creditor threatens a debtor with debt slavery in many parts of the world. In some cases the debtor does not know that they have a right to go **bankrupt**. This is a human rights problem in some countries. Also, some creditors continue to harass a debtor even though bankruptcy laws say they should not, hoping that the debtor will pay them money that they do not deserve.
## United States
Bankruptcy in the United States falls mostly under federal law, Title 11 of the United States Code (Bankruptcy Code). The types of bankruptcy available in the United States are named after the primary divisions, or "chapters", of that law. The person or business that files a bankruptcy case is known as the _debtor_.
When a bankruptcy case is filed, a trustee is chosen by the court. The trustee has authority over the property of the bankrupt person or business and may use some of the debtor's assets to pay the creditors. After a bankruptcy is filed, creditors are notified that they are to stop trying to collect money directly from the debtor and are to make claims for payment to the bankruptcy court.
### Chapter 7
The most common form of bankruptcy is the Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, which can be filed by businesses or individuals. It is also called liquidation bankruptcy because some of a debtor's property may be sold (liquidated) to satisfy creditors. When a business is in debt which it cannot pay, it may ask or be forced to file bankruptcy in court under Chapter 7. This usually makes a company stop doing business. Employees often lose their jobs when company files for chapter 7.
### Chapter 11
Chapter 11 bankruptcy is a complicated type of bankruptcy that reorganizes the debtor's finances, usually reducing the amount of debt owed and changing debt repayment terms. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy case allows a business to keep running while it finds ways to reduce and arrange payment of its debts.
Almost all Chapter 11 bankruptcies are filed by businesses. Ordinary people do not usually file Chapter 11 bankruptcy, because a Chapter 13 bankruptcy will almost always be cheaper and easier for them.
### Chapter 13
Chapter 13 is the most popular form of bankruptcy in the United States for ordinary people. In a Chapter 13 bankruptcy some of your debts may be forgiven (discharged), but you will have to pay back a portion of your debt. The debt repayment plan is supervised by the bankruptcy court and usually lasts for three to five years. Businesses cannot file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy.
### Other bankruptcy chapters
Less common forms of bankruptcy may be filed under Chapter 9 and Chapter 12 of the bankruptcy code.
- Chapter 9 bankruptcy allows municipalities, smaller units of government such as cities and towns, to restructure their debts.
- Chapter 12 bankruptcy is a special type of bankruptcy for family farms and fishermen. It combines elements of Chapter 11 and Chapter 13 bankruptcy to allow smaller farms and fishing businesses to stay open while they restructure their debts.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
74
|
Breakfast sausage
|
**Breakfast sausage** is a type of fresh [pork](7751) [sausage](710) made from [season](6276)ed [ground](39558) [meat](4646) mixed with [bread](4475) crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as British or Italian-style sausages.
## History of breakfast sausages
The journey of breakfast sausages began centuries ago in Europe, with each European country adding its unique twist. For instance, Germany is known for its variety of wursts, while Italian sausages often feature fennel and garlic. This evolution reflects changes in societal norms and eating habits, transitioning from a means of preservation to a convenient breakfast option.
## Using breakfast sausages
Breakfast sausages are not cured or [smoked](47878) like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the [refrigerator](11608) or the [freezer](11608). Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot [soap](807)y water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked.
They are usually [fried](284) or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at [breakfast](5935), often with cooked [eggs](77687), [pancake](39585)s, and [toast](45362)ed bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as "toad in the hole" a cooked batter dish.
## Preparation and Cooking
Cooking breakfast sausages to perfection is an art. Frying in a pan over medium heat brings out rich flavors, while baking offers a healthier alternative with minimal attention. Grilling imparts a unique smoky flavor. Regardless of the method, the internal temperature should reach 160°F (71°C) to ensure they are cooked through.
## Types of breakfast sausages
Different types made from pork and [beef](4716) mixtures as well as [poultry](79714) can now be found. There are also vegetarian types that use [textured vegetable protein](21794) in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness.
## Nutritional Information
Breakfast sausages are a good protein source but can be high in saturated fat and sodium. Leaner versions are available, and for those looking for plant-based alternatives, vegetarian sausages offer similar textures and flavors but are lower in fat and cholesterol-free.
## Cultural Variations
Breakfast sausages are a staple in many cultures. In the US, they are often paired with pancakes and eggs. In the UK, they are a key part of the 'full English breakfast.' German Bratwurst and Italian sausages with fennel and garlic are examples of how different regions have embraced and adapted breakfast sausages.
## Recipes and Serving Suggestions
Creative ways to incorporate breakfast sausages into meals include Sausage and Egg Muffin Cups, Sausage Breakfast Casseroles, and Sausage and Vegetable Skillets. These recipes demonstrate the versatility of breakfast sausages in various cuisines.
## Modern Developments and Trends
Recent trends in breakfast sausages include the rise of plant-based options, ethically sourced meats, global flavors, and healthier ingredients. This reflects changing consumer preferences towards healthier and more diverse food choices.
|
**Breakfast sausage** is a type of fresh pork sausage made from seasoned ground meat mixed with bread crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as British or Italian-style sausages.
## History of breakfast sausages
The journey of breakfast sausages began centuries ago in Europe, with each European country adding its unique twist. For instance, Germany is known for its variety of wursts, while Italian sausages often feature fennel and garlic. This evolution reflects changes in societal norms and eating habits, transitioning from a means of preservation to a convenient breakfast option.
## Using breakfast sausages
Breakfast sausages are not cured or smoked like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the refrigerator or the freezer. Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot soapy water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked.
They are usually fried or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at breakfast, often with cooked eggs, pancakes, and toasted bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as "toad in the hole" a cooked batter dish.
## Preparation and Cooking
Cooking breakfast sausages to perfection is an art. Frying in a pan over medium heat brings out rich flavors, while baking offers a healthier alternative with minimal attention. Grilling imparts a unique smoky flavor. Regardless of the method, the internal temperature should reach 160°F (71°C) to ensure they are cooked through.
## Types of breakfast sausages
Different types made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry can now be found. There are also vegetarian types that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness.
## Nutritional Information
Breakfast sausages are a good protein source but can be high in saturated fat and sodium. Leaner versions are available, and for those looking for plant-based alternatives, vegetarian sausages offer similar textures and flavors but are lower in fat and cholesterol-free.
## Cultural Variations
Breakfast sausages are a staple in many cultures. In the US, they are often paired with pancakes and eggs. In the UK, they are a key part of the 'full English breakfast.' German Bratwurst and Italian sausages with fennel and garlic are examples of how different regions have embraced and adapted breakfast sausages.
## Recipes and Serving Suggestions
Creative ways to incorporate breakfast sausages into meals include Sausage and Egg Muffin Cups, Sausage Breakfast Casseroles, and Sausage and Vegetable Skillets. These recipes demonstrate the versatility of breakfast sausages in various cuisines.
## Modern Developments and Trends
Recent trends in breakfast sausages include the rise of plant-based options, ethically sourced meats, global flavors, and healthier ingredients. This reflects changing consumer preferences towards healthier and more diverse food choices.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
76
|
Browser
|
A **browser** is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous [mammal](525), which eats leaves and [shrub](21014)s rather than [grass](19907). It is contrasted with [grazer](218889)s, which eat grass.
|
A **browser** is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass.
|
low
| false
| false
|
80
|
Beekeeping
|
**Beekeeping** or **apiculture** is the [farming](19) of honeybees.
## Uses
The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for [honey](13963). That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for [crop](11502) [pollination](38118) and other products. These are wax and [propolis](64929).
There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive.
## Types of beekeeping
The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for [profit](19820). Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a [hobby](3453). Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater [biodiversity](47219).
## Threats
[Colony Collapse Disorder](286889) is a growing problem, along with mites.
|
**Beekeeping** or **apiculture** is the farming of honeybees.
## Uses
The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis.
There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive.
## Types of beekeeping
The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity.
## Threats
Colony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
83
|
British English
|
**British English** is the [dialect](21596) of [English](2843) that is spoken in the [United Kingdom](856). It is different in some ways from other types of English such as [American English](28). British English is widely spoken in most countries that were once part of the [British Empire](23677).
## Use in other countries
[American English](28) is used in the [United States](219587). In [Canada](219589), the accent sounds very similar to American English, but [Canadian English](174681) has a few differences. Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules.
Most members of the [Commonwealth of Nations](31668) learn British English, and American English is often learnt in the [Americas](227444), [Japan](403), [South Korea](5073) and [Taiwan](833). The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, and [Australia](27), [South Africa](3528), Canada, [New Zealand](5072) and the United States use American layout keyboards. In [Continental Europe](503597), [English as a second language](2160) is sometimes taught in American English except in [Scandinavia](9141) and the [Netherlands](3463), where British English is taught.
## Pronunciation
In the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same, but the [pronunciation](95605) varies in the local dialects. For example, a person from a place near [London](460) may not pronounce the "r" the same as a person from [Scotland](3049). Across the country, the accent is different. [Liverpool](11604) people may speak with a "Scouse" accent, and [Birmingham](6416) people speak with a "Brummie" accent.
In [London](460), the "Cockney" accent was once common but it is almost never heard today. All regional accents became less extreme in the 20th century. That is generally attributed to the arrival of radio and television. Another factor is the increased mobility of people. A similar process has been noted in the United States, where regional differences are much less noticeable than they used to be.
## Spelling
There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many British English rules are also used in other countries. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
## Vocabulary
In British English, "dock" refers to the [water](939) in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip".
Here are other common differences:
British English – American English
- accelerator – throttle
- [autumn](18860) – fall
- [biscuit](27478) – cookie
- bonnet – hood (of a car)
- [boot](70) – trunk (of a car)
- bum – butt
- caravan – travel trailer, [mobile home](184246)
- chips – [French fries](48533)
- courgette – [zucchini](46892)
- crisps – chips (especially potato chips)
- care home - [assisted living](452369) facility\home
- sweets - [candy](55430)
- face flannel – washcloth
- flat – [apartment](38314)
- football – soccer
- garden – yard
- bungalow - ranch house
- handbag – purse
- jumper – sweater
- lift – elevator
- lorry – truck
- manual gearbox – stick shift
- metro, underground, tube – subway
- motorway – freeway
- mum – mom
- nappy – diaper
- number plate – license plate
- pants - underpants
- pavement – sidewalk
- lower ground floor - [basement](33284)
- ground floor - first\main floor
- let - rent or lease
- fuzz\coppers - [police](642), the cops
- knackered - exhausted, tired
- aeroplane - [airplane](78545)
- pram – stroller
- petrol – gas or gasoline
- phone box - phone booth
- post – mail, mailbox
- railway – railroad
- shopping trolley – shopping cart
- loo – toilet
- take-away – take-out
- trousers – pants - Only Superman wears his pants outside of his trousers
- torch – flashlight
- tram – streetcar
- holiday - vacation
## Other websites
- [British and American English differences](http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/BritishVsAmerican)
## Infobox (language)
- **nativename**: _British English_
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **states**: United Kingdom
- **ethnicity**: British people
- **fam2**: Germanic languages, Germanic
- **fam3**: West Germanic languages, West Germanic
- **fam4**: Ingvaeonic languages, Ingvaeonic
- **fam5**: Anglo-Frisian languages, Anglo-Frisian
- **fam6**: Anglic languages, Anglic
- **fam7**: English language, English
- **ancestor**: Old English
- **ancestor2**: Middle English
- **ancestor3**: Early Modern English
- **stand1**: Received Pronunciation
- **stand2**: Standard Scottish English
- **script**: Latin script, Latin (English alphabet)
- **nation**: *
(originally )
* (with Oxford spelling)
- **isoexception**: dialect
- **stand3**: Standard Hiberno-English
- **name**: British English
|
**British English** is the dialect of English that is spoken in the United Kingdom. It is different in some ways from other types of English such as American English. British English is widely spoken in most countries that were once part of the British Empire.
## Use in other countries
American English is used in the United States. In Canada, the accent sounds very similar to American English, but Canadian English has a few differences. Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules.
Most members of the Commonwealth of Nations learn British English, and American English is often learnt in the Americas, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, and Australia, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and the United States use American layout keyboards. In Continental Europe, English as a second language is sometimes taught in American English except in Scandinavia and the Netherlands, where British English is taught.
## Pronunciation
In the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same, but the pronunciation varies in the local dialects. For example, a person from a place near London may not pronounce the "r" the same as a person from Scotland. Across the country, the accent is different. Liverpool people may speak with a "Scouse" accent, and Birmingham people speak with a "Brummie" accent.
In London, the "Cockney" accent was once common but it is almost never heard today. All regional accents became less extreme in the 20th century. That is generally attributed to the arrival of radio and television. Another factor is the increased mobility of people. A similar process has been noted in the United States, where regional differences are much less noticeable than they used to be.
## Spelling
There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many British English rules are also used in other countries. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
## Vocabulary
In British English, "dock" refers to the water in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip".
Here are other common differences:
British English – American English
- accelerator – throttle
- autumn – fall
- biscuit – cookie
- bonnet – hood (of a car)
- boot – trunk (of a car)
- bum – butt
- caravan – travel trailer, mobile home
- chips – French fries
- courgette – zucchini
- crisps – chips (especially potato chips)
- care home - assisted living facility\home
- sweets - candy
- face flannel – washcloth
- flat – apartment
- football – soccer
- garden – yard
- bungalow - ranch house
- handbag – purse
- jumper – sweater
- lift – elevator
- lorry – truck
- manual gearbox – stick shift
- metro, underground, tube – subway
- motorway – freeway
- mum – mom
- nappy – diaper
- number plate – license plate
- pants - underpants
- pavement – sidewalk
- lower ground floor - basement
- ground floor - first\main floor
- let - rent or lease
- fuzz\coppers - police, the cops
- knackered - exhausted, tired
- aeroplane - airplane
- pram – stroller
- petrol – gas or gasoline
- phone box - phone booth
- post – mail, mailbox
- railway – railroad
- shopping trolley – shopping cart
- loo – toilet
- take-away – take-out
- trousers – pants - Only Superman wears his pants outside of his trousers
- torch – flashlight
- tram – streetcar
- holiday - vacation
## Other websites
- British and American English differences
## Infobox (language)
- **nativename**: _British English_
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **states**: United Kingdom
- **ethnicity**: British people
- **fam2**: Germanic languages, Germanic
- **fam3**: West Germanic languages, West Germanic
- **fam4**: Ingvaeonic languages, Ingvaeonic
- **fam5**: Anglo-Frisian languages, Anglo-Frisian
- **fam6**: Anglic languages, Anglic
- **fam7**: English language, English
- **ancestor**: Old English
- **ancestor2**: Middle English
- **ancestor3**: Early Modern English
- **stand1**: Received Pronunciation
- **stand2**: Standard Scottish English
- **script**: Latin script, Latin (English alphabet)
- **nation**: *
(originally )
* (with Oxford spelling)
- **isoexception**: dialect
- **stand3**: Standard Hiberno-English
- **name**: British English
|
medium
| false
| false
|
85
|
Being
|
- _Being is also a [present tense](351533) part of to be_
The word **being** means a living person or [animal](62). ‘Human being’ means the same as ’person’. [Men](5504), [women](5505), and [child](7681)ren are human beings.
Some people write stories or make [movie](3486)s about beings from other [planet](639)s. Most [religion](653)s talk about [supernatural](752) beings, for example [spirit](753)s, [angel](33)s, [devil](195)s, [gods](20464), or [God](305).
|
- _Being is also a present tense part of to be_
The word **being** means a living person or animal. ‘Human being’ means the same as ’person’. Men, women, and children are human beings.
Some people write stories or make movies about beings from other planets. Most religions talk about supernatural beings, for example spirits, angels, devils, gods, or God.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
89
|
Beijing
|
**Beijing** is the capital of the [People's Republic of China](600). The city used to be known as **Peking**. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities.
The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. Beijing hosted the [Summer Olympic Games](26435) in [2008](42155), and the [Winter Olympic Games](33515) in [2022](72476). It is the only city that has hosted both.
Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing.
## Name
The [Mandarin Chinese](5403) name of the city is _Běijīng_, which means "The Northern Capital". It got this name when the [Yongle Emperor](601678) of the [Ming](29962) family of rulers moved most of his [government](312) from [Nanjing](95886) ("The Southern Capital") in the early [1400s](15589). In [Chinese](949), Beijing's name [is written](29156) Today, people spell it "Beijing" because they use the [pinyin way of spelling](63142), which shows what the name should sound like in [Mandarin](5403). People used to spell it "**Peking**" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from [Europe](216) to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their [French](601374) brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around [1900](10606) and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular.
Beijing was also known as **Beiping** ("City of Northern Peace") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to [Nanjing](95886) and [Chongqing](36600).
## History
The center of Beijing was settled in the [1st millennium BC](219922). In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (燕, Yān) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (蓟, Jì). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place.
Beijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by Mongol forces in [1215](62967). Then in [1267](4652), Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it "Great Capital" (大都, Dàdū), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When [Kublai Khan](93650) the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital.
The [Yuan Dynasty](30397), [Ming Dynasty](29962) and [Qing dynasty](31459) all made Beijing their capital. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again.
In 1989, there were [protest](38249)s in [Tian'anmen Square](49151) because some people wanted [democracy](3195).
Throughout its history, Beijing was the Chinese capital six times:
- 221 BC: Yan State capital
- 1271: Yuan Dynasty national capital
- 1402: Ming Dynasty capital
- 1644: Qing Dynasty capital
- 1912: Republic of China capital
- 1949: People's Republic of China capital
## Special places
Important places in Beijing include:
- The [Great Wall of China](8614) (_Chángchéng_), in the mountains between Beijing and the grasslands of [Mongolia](17840)
- The [Forbidden City](131474) (_Gùgōng_), the most important home of the emperors of Ming and Qing China
- Tian'anmen Square (_Tiān'ānmén Guǎngchǎng_), surrounded by China's most important government buildings and museums
- Jingshan & Beihai Parks, the hill overlooking the Forbidden City and the lake beside it, with many temples
- The [Summer Palace](296387) (_Yìhéyuán_) and Old Summer Palace (_Yuánmíng Yuán_), the more natural home of the last Qing emperors and what is left of an older one
- Prince Gong's Mansion, a very nice old house for one of the Qing [prince](6710)s
- The [Imperial Ancestral Temple](994883) (_Tàimiào_), where the emperors remembered the earlier people in their families
- The [Temple of Heaven](812311) (_Tiāntán_) and Temple of the Earth (_Dìtán_), important places for China's old national religion
- The Temples of the Sun and the Moon, other important places for China's old national religion
- The Temple of Confucius and Imperial Academy, important places for China's old kind of education
- Niujie Mosque, a place for Beijing's [Muslims](7410) and one of the city's oldest buildings
- The National and Urban Planning Museums
- Olympic Green, the park left from the 2008 Beijing Olympics
- Marco Polo Bridge, a very old bridge across the main river west of town
- [Ming Tombs](1031166), where many Ming emperors were [buried](49189)
- [Zhoukoudian](205603), caves in the mountains west of town where people lived long, long ago
## Education
Beijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More than 500 famous universities of China are in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: [Peking University](125933), Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University, and [Beihang University](617626). Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies.
### Books
- .
- .
## Other websites
- [Beijing Travel](http://www.chinatravel.com/beijing/)
- [Beijing Travel Guide](http://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/)
- [Voyage Pékin](http://www.voyageschine.com/p%C3%A9kin-voyage/)
- [Photos of Beijing](http://www.accesschinatravel.com/photos-beijing.html)
## Infobox (settlement)
- **other name**: Peking
- **settlement type**: Direct-administered municipalities of China, Municipality
- **image skyline**: Beijing montage 1.png
- **image caption**: Clockwise from top: Beijing central business district, Beijing CBD skyline, Tiananmen, Temple of Heaven, National Centre for the Performing Arts (China), National Center for the Performing Arts, and Beijing National Stadium
- **image map1**: Beijing in China (+all claims hatched).svg
- **map caption1**: Location of Beijing Municipality within China
- **area urban footnotes**: (2018)
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: People's Republic of China
- **established title**: Established
- **established date**: 1045 BC (Zhou Dynasty)
- **parts type**: Divisions
– County-level division, County-level
– Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#Township level, Township-level
- **parts**:
List of administrative divisions of Beijing, 16 districts
289 towns and villages
- **government type**: Direct-administered municipalities of China, Municipality
- **leader title**: Party chief of the Communist Party of China, Party Secretary
- **leader name**: .
- **leader title1**: Mayor
- **leader name1**: .
- **total type**: Municipality
- **area total km2**: 16,410.5
- **area urban km2**: 4,144
- **area rural km2**: 12,266.5
- **elevation m**: 43.5
- **population total**: 21,542,000
- **population as of**: 2018
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population urban**: 21,450,000
- **population urban footnotes**: (2018)
- **population metro**: 24,000,000
- **population metro footnotes**: (2017)
- **population blank1 title**: Ranks in China
- **population blank1**: Population: List of People's Republic of China administrative divisions by population, 27th;
Density: List of People's Republic of China administrative divisions by population density, 4th
- **demographics type1**: Major List of ethnic groups in China, ethnic groups
- **demographics1 title1**: Han Chinese, Han
- **demographics1 info5**: 0.7%
- **area code**: Telephone numbers in China, 10
- **iso code**: ISO 3166-2:CN, CN-BJ
- **blank name sec1**: GDP (nominal)
- **blank info sec1**: 2018
- **blank1 name sec1**: - Total
- **blank1 info sec1**: ¥3.03 trillion
($458 billion)
(List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP, 12th)
- **blank name sec2**: **City trees**
- **blank info sec2**: Chinese arborvitae (_Platycladus orientalis_)
- **blank1 name sec2**:
- **blank1 info sec2**: Styphnolobium, Pagoda tree (_Sophora japonica_)
- **website**: [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/ Beijing Official Website International – eBeijing.gov.cn] [http://www.beijing.gov.cn/ 首都之窗-北京市政务门户网站]
- **leader title2**: Congress Chairman
- **leader name2**: Li Wei
- **leader title3**: Conference Chairman
- **leader name3**: Ji Lin
- **demographics1 info1**: 95%
- **demographics1 title2**: Manchu people, Manchu
- **demographics1 info2**: 2%
- **demographics1 title3**: Hui people, Hui
- **demographics1 info3**: 2%
- **demographics1 title4**: Mongols in China, Mongol
- **demographics1 info4**: 0.3%
- **demographics1 title5**: Other
- **timezone**: China Standard Time, CST
- **utc offset**: +8
- **blank2 name sec1**: – Per capita
- **blank2 info sec1**: ¥140,748 ($21,261) (List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita, 1st)
- **blank3 name sec1**: – Growth
- **blank3 info sec1**: 6.6%
- **blank4 name sec1**: Human Development Index, HDI (2017)
- **blank4 info sec1**: 0.888 (List of Chinese administrative divisions by HDI, 1st)—<span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
- **blank5 name sec1**: Vehicle registration plates of China, License plate prefixes
- **blank5 info sec1**:
(taxis)
(outside urban area)
(police and authorities)
- **blank6 name sec1**: Abbreviation
- **blank6 info sec1**: BJ / (jīng)
- **blank2 name sec2**: **City flowers**
- **blank2 info sec2**: Rosa chinensis, China rose (_Rosa chinensis_)
- **blank3 name sec2**:
- **blank3 info sec2**: Chrysanthemum (_Chrysanthemum morifolium_)
## Infobox (chinese)
- **pic**: Beijing name.svg
- **piccap**: "" in kaishu, regular Chinese characters
- **picupright**: 0.5
- **l**: "Northern Capital"
- **psp**: Peking
Peiping <small>(1368–1403;
1928–1937; 1945–1949)</small>
- **w**: Pei<sup>3</sup>-ching<sup>1</sup>
- **bpmf**: ㄅㄟˇ ㄐㄧㄥ
- **gr**: Beeijing
- **j**: Bak1ging1
- **y**: Bākgìng _or_ Bākgīng
- **ci**: _or_
- **suz**: Poh-cin
- **poj**: Pak-kiaⁿ
- **tl**: Pak-kiann
- **buc**: Báe̤k-gĭng
- **h**: Bet<sup>5</sup>-gin<sup>1</sup>
- **showflag**: p
|
**Beijing** is the capital of the People's Republic of China. The city used to be known as **Peking**. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities.
The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. Beijing hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 2008, and the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. It is the only city that has hosted both.
Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing.
## Name
The Mandarin Chinese name of the city is _Běijīng_, which means "The Northern Capital". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government from Nanjing ("The Southern Capital") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Beijing's name is written Today, people spell it "Beijing" because they use the pinyin way of spelling, which shows what the name should sound like in Mandarin. People used to spell it "**Peking**" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from Europe to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their French brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around 1900 and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular.
Beijing was also known as **Beiping** ("City of Northern Peace") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to Nanjing and Chongqing.
## History
The center of Beijing was settled in the 1st millennium BC. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (燕, Yān) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (蓟, Jì). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place.
Beijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by Mongol forces in 1215. Then in 1267, Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it "Great Capital" (大都, Dàdū), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When Kublai Khan the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital.
The Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty and Qing dynasty all made Beijing their capital. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again.
In 1989, there were protests in Tian'anmen Square because some people wanted democracy.
Throughout its history, Beijing was the Chinese capital six times:
- 221 BC: Yan State capital
- 1271: Yuan Dynasty national capital
- 1402: Ming Dynasty capital
- 1644: Qing Dynasty capital
- 1912: Republic of China capital
- 1949: People's Republic of China capital
## Special places
Important places in Beijing include:
- The Great Wall of China (_Chángchéng_), in the mountains between Beijing and the grasslands of Mongolia
- The Forbidden City (_Gùgōng_), the most important home of the emperors of Ming and Qing China
- Tian'anmen Square (_Tiān'ānmén Guǎngchǎng_), surrounded by China's most important government buildings and museums
- Jingshan & Beihai Parks, the hill overlooking the Forbidden City and the lake beside it, with many temples
- The Summer Palace (_Yìhéyuán_) and Old Summer Palace (_Yuánmíng Yuán_), the more natural home of the last Qing emperors and what is left of an older one
- Prince Gong's Mansion, a very nice old house for one of the Qing princes
- The Imperial Ancestral Temple (_Tàimiào_), where the emperors remembered the earlier people in their families
- The Temple of Heaven (_Tiāntán_) and Temple of the Earth (_Dìtán_), important places for China's old national religion
- The Temples of the Sun and the Moon, other important places for China's old national religion
- The Temple of Confucius and Imperial Academy, important places for China's old kind of education
- Niujie Mosque, a place for Beijing's Muslims and one of the city's oldest buildings
- The National and Urban Planning Museums
- Olympic Green, the park left from the 2008 Beijing Olympics
- Marco Polo Bridge, a very old bridge across the main river west of town
- Ming Tombs, where many Ming emperors were buried
- Zhoukoudian, caves in the mountains west of town where people lived long, long ago
## Education
Beijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More than 500 famous universities of China are in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: Peking University, Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University, and Beihang University. Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies.
### Books
- .
- .
## Other websites
- Beijing Travel
- Beijing Travel Guide
- Voyage Pékin
- Photos of Beijing
## Infobox (settlement)
- **other name**: Peking
- **settlement type**: Direct-administered municipalities of China, Municipality
- **image skyline**: Beijing montage 1.png
- **image caption**: Clockwise from top: Beijing central business district, Beijing CBD skyline, Tiananmen, Temple of Heaven, National Centre for the Performing Arts (China), National Center for the Performing Arts, and Beijing National Stadium
- **image map1**: Beijing in China (+all claims hatched).svg
- **map caption1**: Location of Beijing Municipality within China
- **area urban footnotes**: (2018)
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: People's Republic of China
- **established title**: Established
- **established date**: 1045 BC (Zhou Dynasty)
- **parts type**: Divisions
– County-level division, County-level
– Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#Township level, Township-level
- **parts**:
List of administrative divisions of Beijing, 16 districts
289 towns and villages
- **government type**: Direct-administered municipalities of China, Municipality
- **leader title**: Party chief of the Communist Party of China, Party Secretary
- **leader name**: .
- **leader title1**: Mayor
- **leader name1**: .
- **total type**: Municipality
- **area total km2**: 16,410.5
- **area urban km2**: 4,144
- **area rural km2**: 12,266.5
- **elevation m**: 43.5
- **population total**: 21,542,000
- **population as of**: 2018
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population urban**: 21,450,000
- **population urban footnotes**: (2018)
- **population metro**: 24,000,000
- **population metro footnotes**: (2017)
- **population blank1 title**: Ranks in China
- **population blank1**: Population: List of People's Republic of China administrative divisions by population, 27th;
Density: List of People's Republic of China administrative divisions by population density, 4th
- **demographics type1**: Major List of ethnic groups in China, ethnic groups
- **demographics1 title1**: Han Chinese, Han
- **demographics1 info5**: 0.7%
- **area code**: Telephone numbers in China, 10
- **iso code**: ISO 3166-2:CN, CN-BJ
- **blank name sec1**: GDP (nominal)
- **blank info sec1**: 2018
- **blank1 name sec1**: - Total
- **blank1 info sec1**: ¥3.03 trillion
($458 billion)
(List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP, 12th)
- **blank name sec2**: **City trees**
- **blank info sec2**: Chinese arborvitae (_Platycladus orientalis_)
- **blank1 name sec2**:
- **blank1 info sec2**: Styphnolobium, Pagoda tree (_Sophora japonica_)
- **website**: [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/ Beijing Official Website International – eBeijing.gov.cn] [http://www.beijing.gov.cn/ 首都之窗-北京市政务门户网站]
- **leader title2**: Congress Chairman
- **leader name2**: Li Wei
- **leader title3**: Conference Chairman
- **leader name3**: Ji Lin
- **demographics1 info1**: 95%
- **demographics1 title2**: Manchu people, Manchu
- **demographics1 info2**: 2%
- **demographics1 title3**: Hui people, Hui
- **demographics1 info3**: 2%
- **demographics1 title4**: Mongols in China, Mongol
- **demographics1 info4**: 0.3%
- **demographics1 title5**: Other
- **timezone**: China Standard Time, CST
- **utc offset**: +8
- **blank2 name sec1**: – Per capita
- **blank2 info sec1**: ¥140,748 ($21,261) (List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita, 1st)
- **blank3 name sec1**: – Growth
- **blank3 info sec1**: 6.6%
- **blank4 name sec1**: Human Development Index, HDI (2017)
- **blank4 info sec1**: 0.888 (List of Chinese administrative divisions by HDI, 1st)—<span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
- **blank5 name sec1**: Vehicle registration plates of China, License plate prefixes
- **blank5 info sec1**:
(taxis)
(outside urban area)
(police and authorities)
- **blank6 name sec1**: Abbreviation
- **blank6 info sec1**: BJ / (jīng)
- **blank2 name sec2**: **City flowers**
- **blank2 info sec2**: Rosa chinensis, China rose (_Rosa chinensis_)
- **blank3 name sec2**:
- **blank3 info sec2**: Chrysanthemum (_Chrysanthemum morifolium_)
## Infobox (chinese)
- **pic**: Beijing name.svg
- **piccap**: "" in kaishu, regular Chinese characters
- **picupright**: 0.5
- **l**: "Northern Capital"
- **psp**: Peking
Peiping <small>(1368–1403;
1928–1937; 1945–1949)</small>
- **w**: Pei<sup>3</sup>-ching<sup>1</sup>
- **bpmf**: ㄅㄟˇ ㄐㄧㄥ
- **gr**: Beeijing
- **j**: Bak1ging1
- **y**: Bākgìng _or_ Bākgīng
- **ci**: _or_
- **suz**: Poh-cin
- **poj**: Pak-kiaⁿ
- **tl**: Pak-kiann
- **buc**: Báe̤k-gĭng
- **h**: Bet<sup>5</sup>-gin<sup>1</sup>
- **showflag**: p
|
high
| false
| false
|
90
|
Bottle
|
A **bottle** is a [container](1988) used to carry [liquid](7870)s. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of [glass](304) or [plastic](646). Drinks such as [milk](3398), [wine](935), [lemonade](7315), [soft drink](53042)s, and [water](939) are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like [bleach](11229) or [detergent](32525), and some kinds of [medicine](3793)s.
|
A **bottle** is a container used to carry liquids. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of glass or plastic. Drinks such as milk, wine, lemonade, soft drinks, and water are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like bleach or detergent, and some kinds of medicines.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
91
|
Berry
|
The word **berry** is used for many different kinds of small [fruit](293)s that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are [raspberry](15724), [strawberry](231262), sutberry, lingonberry and [blueberry](15742).
When [botanists](102) talk about _berries_, they mean a simple [fruit](293) produced from a single [ovary](130237). They sometimes call this _true berry_, to distinguish it from _false berries_. By that statement of how words are used, [grape](15731)s or [tomato](15717)es are true berries.
The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the [pericarp](794033) which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.
Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more [animal](62)s towards them and spread their [seed](765)s.
## Types of berries
Some fruits that are called _berries_ in [English](2843) are not _true berries_ by the use of words above. These include [raspberries](15724), strawberry, sutberry, [blackberries](15732), [cranberries](336045), and [boysenberries](402199). Some true berries do not have _berry_ in their name. These include [tomato](15717)es, [banana](3715)s, eggplants, [guava](55036)s, [pomegranate](45466)s and chillies. [Pumpkin](32269)s, [cucumber](128149)s, [melon](15723)s, [oranges](45150) and [lemon](44590)s are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).
Some fruits are "[botanical berries](1179724)", meaning that [scientists who study plants](102) call them berries. But not all of these are the types of fruit that we usually call berries. Also, some of the fruits we usually call berries, are not "botanical berries".
|
The word **berry** is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry.
When botanists talk about _berries_, they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this _true berry_, to distinguish it from _false berries_. By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries.
The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.
Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds.
## Types of berries
Some fruits that are called _berries_ in English are not _true berries_ by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have _berry_ in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).
Some fruits are "botanical berries", meaning that scientists who study plants call them berries. But not all of these are the types of fruit that we usually call berries. Also, some of the fruits we usually call berries, are not "botanical berries".
|
medium
| false
| false
|
93
|
Boil
|
**Boil** might mean:
- [Boiling](53680), heating a liquid to the point where it turns into gas
- [Boil](747219), a type of _[Staphylococcal infection](370304)_
|
**Boil** might mean:
- Boiling, heating a liquid to the point where it turns into gas
- Boil, a type of _Staphylococcal infection_
|
high
| false
| false
|
94
|
Beard
|
A **beard** is the [hair](359) growing on the lower part of a [man](5504)'s [face](4061).
The hair that grows on the upper [lip](40778) of some men is a [mustache](500). When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a [soul patch](50007). Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long.
Some [animal](62)s also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard.
|
A **beard** is the hair growing on the lower part of a man's face.
The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is a mustache. When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a soul patch. Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long.
Some animals also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
98
|
Black
|
In light, **black** is the absence of all [color](2083). It is a shade. In painting, however, black [pigment](52033) is the combination of all colors. In [heraldry](70021), black is called "sable". It is the opposite of [white](7877). No color can have the same level of dark pigmentation without turning itself into black. It appears as a dark shade that can reflect light into the rainbow.
## Black in science and related
A way to create black objects is to mix [pigments](52033). A pigment works by reflecting only the color of other colored objects because they absorb more light.
## Meaning of black
Black is associated with a range of concepts, from power, elegance, formality, [safety](178022), birth, and male to death, crime, female, evil and mystery. Black is the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a _neutral_ color. This means that it is not a _hot_ color or a _cool_ color.
Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown. It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and boldness. It can be a formal, elegant and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes).
## Related pages
- [List of colors](4046)
- [Atomic physics](350758)
- [Blackbody radiation](202005)
- [Quantum mechanics](7136)
- [Vantablack](921792)
|
In light, **black** is the absence of all color. It is a shade. In painting, however, black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white. No color can have the same level of dark pigmentation without turning itself into black. It appears as a dark shade that can reflect light into the rainbow.
## Black in science and related
A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of other colored objects because they absorb more light.
## Meaning of black
Black is associated with a range of concepts, from power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, and male to death, crime, female, evil and mystery. Black is the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a _neutral_ color. This means that it is not a _hot_ color or a _cool_ color.
Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown. It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and boldness. It can be a formal, elegant and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes).
## Related pages
- List of colors
- Atomic physics
- Blackbody radiation
- Quantum mechanics
- Vantablack
|
high
| false
| false
|
100
|
Bubonic plague
|
**Bubonic plague** is the best-known form of the disease plague caused by the bacterium _[Yersinia pestis](57032)_. The name _bubonic plague_ is specific for this form of the disease, which enters through the skin, and travels through the [lymphatic system](54954).
The plague was spread by [flea](3523)s on rats. This method of spreading disease is called a [zoonosis](301556).
If the disease is left untreated, it kills about half its victims in three to seven days. The bubonic plague was the disease that caused the [Black Death](11603), which killed tens of millions of people in Europe, in the [Middle Ages](6593).
[Symptom](13519)s of this disease include [cough](101278)ing, [fever](18965), and black spots on the [skin](772).
## Different kinds of the same disease
There are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of [flea](3523), that lives on [rat](18480)s. Then there is an [incubation period](66770) which can last from a few hours to about seven days.
### Septicemic plague
[Sepsis](105295) happens when the bacterium enters the [blood](2950) and makes it form tiny clots.
### Pneumonic plague
This happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days.
### The abortive form
This is the most harmless form. It will result in a small [fever](18965). After that, the victim's body produces [antibodies](36488) that protect against all forms of the disease for a long time.
## History
The first recorded epidemic was in the [Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire)](23811), It was called the [Plague of Justinian](136807) after emperor [Justinian I](68685), who was infected but survived after long treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence).
During the 1300s, this [epidemic](14066) struck parts of [Asia](1994), [North Africa](19031), and [Europe](216). Almost a third of the people in Europe died of it. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it broke people's trust in one another. [Giovanni Boccaccio](51147), an [Italian](363) writer of the time, described it: _"This scourge had implanted so great a terror in the hearts of men and women that brothers abandoned brothers, uncles their nephews, sisters their brothers, and in many cases wives deserted their husbands. But even worse,... fathers and mothers refused to nurse and assist their own children"._
Local outbreaks of the plague are grouped into three plague [pandemic](64219)s, whereby the respective start and end dates and the assignment of some outbreaks to either pandemic are still subject to discussion. The pandemics were:
- the first plague pandemic from 541 to ~750, spreading from [Egypt](248) to the Mediterranean (starting with the [Plague of Justinian](136807)) and northwestern [Europe](216)
- the second plague pandemic from ~1331 to ~1855, spreading from [Central Asia](29350) to the Mediterranean and Europe (starting with the [Black Death](11603)), and probably also to China
- the third plague pandemic from 1855 to 1960, spreading from China to various places around the world, notably India and the [West Coast of the United States](293297).
Globally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. In 2017 the countries with the most cases include the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](34328), [Madagascar](7776), and [Peru](2915).
## Vector
The transmission of _Y. pestis_ by fleas is well known. Fleas are the [vector](300334). The flea gets the bacteria as they feed on an infected animal, usually a rodent. Several proteins then work to keep the bacteria in the flea's digestive tract. This is important for the survival of _Y. pestis_ in fleas.
## Modern history
In the [20th century](3407), some countries did [research](23574) on the [bacteria](10861) that causes bubonic plague, in order to use it for [biological warfare](56003).
Samples of this [bacteria](10861) are carefully controlled. There is much [paranoia](21130) (fear) about it. Dr. Thomas C. Butler, a [US](219587) expert in this [organism](5812) was charged in October [2003](3954) by the FBI with various [crime](151)s. This happened after he said he lost samples of _[Yersinia pestis](57032)_. This is the bacteria that causes bubonic plague. The FBI did not find the samples. They do not know what happened to them.
## Infobox (disease)
- **name**: Bubonic plague
- **image**: Plague -buboes.jpg
- **caption**: An inguinal 'bubo' on the upper thigh of person infected with bubonic plague. Swollen Lymphatic system, lymph glands (_buboes_) often occur in the neck, armpit and groin (_inguinal_) regions of plague victims
- **diseasesdb**: 14226
- **meshnumber**: D010930
- **medlineplus**: 000596
|
**Bubonic plague** is the best-known form of the disease plague caused by the bacterium _Yersinia pestis_. The name _bubonic plague_ is specific for this form of the disease, which enters through the skin, and travels through the lymphatic system.
The plague was spread by fleas on rats. This method of spreading disease is called a zoonosis.
If the disease is left untreated, it kills about half its victims in three to seven days. The bubonic plague was the disease that caused the Black Death, which killed tens of millions of people in Europe, in the Middle Ages.
Symptoms of this disease include coughing, fever, and black spots on the skin.
## Different kinds of the same disease
There are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of flea, that lives on rats. Then there is an incubation period which can last from a few hours to about seven days.
### Septicemic plague
Sepsis happens when the bacterium enters the blood and makes it form tiny clots.
### Pneumonic plague
This happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days.
### The abortive form
This is the most harmless form. It will result in a small fever. After that, the victim's body produces antibodies that protect against all forms of the disease for a long time.
## History
The first recorded epidemic was in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), It was called the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived after long treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence).
During the 1300s, this epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Almost a third of the people in Europe died of it. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it broke people's trust in one another. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of the time, described it: _"This scourge had implanted so great a terror in the hearts of men and women that brothers abandoned brothers, uncles their nephews, sisters their brothers, and in many cases wives deserted their husbands. But even worse,... fathers and mothers refused to nurse and assist their own children"._
Local outbreaks of the plague are grouped into three plague pandemics, whereby the respective start and end dates and the assignment of some outbreaks to either pandemic are still subject to discussion. The pandemics were:
- the first plague pandemic from 541 to ~750, spreading from Egypt to the Mediterranean (starting with the Plague of Justinian) and northwestern Europe
- the second plague pandemic from ~1331 to ~1855, spreading from Central Asia to the Mediterranean and Europe (starting with the Black Death), and probably also to China
- the third plague pandemic from 1855 to 1960, spreading from China to various places around the world, notably India and the West Coast of the United States.
Globally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. In 2017 the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru.
## Vector
The transmission of _Y. pestis_ by fleas is well known. Fleas are the vector. The flea gets the bacteria as they feed on an infected animal, usually a rodent. Several proteins then work to keep the bacteria in the flea's digestive tract. This is important for the survival of _Y. pestis_ in fleas.
## Modern history
In the 20th century, some countries did research on the bacteria that causes bubonic plague, in order to use it for biological warfare.
Samples of this bacteria are carefully controlled. There is much paranoia (fear) about it. Dr. Thomas C. Butler, a US expert in this organism was charged in October 2003 by the FBI with various crimes. This happened after he said he lost samples of _Yersinia pestis_. This is the bacteria that causes bubonic plague. The FBI did not find the samples. They do not know what happened to them.
## Infobox (disease)
- **name**: Bubonic plague
- **image**: Plague -buboes.jpg
- **caption**: An inguinal 'bubo' on the upper thigh of person infected with bubonic plague. Swollen Lymphatic system, lymph glands (_buboes_) often occur in the neck, armpit and groin (_inguinal_) regions of plague victims
- **diseasesdb**: 14226
- **meshnumber**: D010930
- **medlineplus**: 000596
|
medium
| false
| false
|
101
|
Biology
|
**Biology** is the [science](700) that studies [life](425), [living things](5812), and the [evolution](8740) of life. Living things include [animal](62)s, plants, fungi (such as [mushroom](20676)s), and microorganisms such as [bacteria](10861) and [archaea](24960).
|
**Biology** is the science that studies life, living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea.
|
high
| true
| false
|
102
|
Botany
|
**Botany** is the study of plants. It is a [science](700). It is a branch of [biology](101).
It is also called plant biology, and sometimes phytology. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They study how plants work.
## Branches of botany
- [Agronomy](69568)—Applying plant science to crop production
- [Bryology](247540)—Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
- [Forestry](10907)—Forest management and related studies
- [Horticulture](247566)—Cultivated plants
- [Micropaleontology](391115)—Pollen and spores
- [Mycology](246590)—Fungi
- [Paleobotany](323166)—Fossil plants
- [Phycology](35860)—Algae
- Phytochemistry—Plant chemical processes
- Phytopathology—Plant diseases
- [Defence against herbivory](311037)
- [Plant anatomy](508521)—Cell and tissue structure
- Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment
- Plant [genetics](9424)—Genetic inheritance in plants
- [Plant morphology](453306)—Structure and life cycles
- [Plant physiology](471299)—Life functions of plants
- Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants (listed by plant type)
### Recent trends
University departments of botany are often now merged into a wider group of specialities, including [cell biology](186185), [genetics](9424), [ecology](243), [cytology](169), palaeontology and other topics. This gives students and research workers access to a wider education and a wider range of research techniques.
## Notable botanists in date order
- [Theophrastus](375165) ~371 BC Eresos~287 BC (aged 83 or 84) Athens. Hellenistic philosopher, wrote books, systematized botanical descriptions.
- Al-Dinawari (828–896), Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of Arabic botany.
- Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias.
- [John Ray](199793) (1627–1705) was an English naturalist, the father of English natural history.
- [Carl Linnaeus](46183) (1707–1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
- [Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon](202619) (1707–1788) was a French naturalist, superintendent of the _Jardin du Roi_ ('King's Garden'). Buffon published thirty-five volumes of his _Histoire naturelle_ during his lifetime, and nine more volumes were published after his death.
- [Imre Festetics](868053) (1764–1847) discovered genetics (in part) and was completely forgotten until a recent rediscovery.
- [Charles Darwin](5121) (1809–1882) wrote eight important books on botany after he published the _[Origin of Species](250506)_.
- [Joseph Dalton Hooker](200523) (1817–1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of [Darwin Medal](657469).
- [Gregor Mendel](30303) (1822–1884), Augustinian priest and scientist. Often called the father of [genetics](9424) for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants.
- [Eduard Strasburger](213435) (1844–1912) was a Polish-German professor who was one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century.
- [Luther Burbank](961126) (1849–1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science.
- [Nikolai Vavilov](199762) (1887–1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He showed how and where crop plants evolved. He studied and improved wheat, corn, and other cereal crops.
- [G. Ledyard Stebbins](215915) (1906–2000) was an American botanist and geneticist. He was one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century.
- Simpson, Michael G. (2011). _Plant systematics_. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-051404-8.
|
**Botany** is the study of plants. It is a science. It is a branch of biology.
It is also called plant biology, and sometimes phytology. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They study how plants work.
## Branches of botany
- Agronomy—Applying plant science to crop production
- Bryology—Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
- Forestry—Forest management and related studies
- Horticulture—Cultivated plants
- Micropaleontology—Pollen and spores
- Mycology—Fungi
- Paleobotany—Fossil plants
- Phycology—Algae
- Phytochemistry—Plant chemical processes
- Phytopathology—Plant diseases
- Defence against herbivory
- Plant anatomy—Cell and tissue structure
- Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment
- Plant genetics—Genetic inheritance in plants
- Plant morphology—Structure and life cycles
- Plant physiology—Life functions of plants
- Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants (listed by plant type)
### Recent trends
University departments of botany are often now merged into a wider group of specialities, including cell biology, genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology and other topics. This gives students and research workers access to a wider education and a wider range of research techniques.
## Notable botanists in date order
- Theophrastus ~371 BC Eresos~287 BC (aged 83 or 84) Athens. Hellenistic philosopher, wrote books, systematized botanical descriptions.
- Al-Dinawari (828–896), Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of Arabic botany.
- Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias.
- John Ray (1627–1705) was an English naturalist, the father of English natural history.
- Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
- Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) was a French naturalist, superintendent of the _Jardin du Roi_ ('King's Garden'). Buffon published thirty-five volumes of his _Histoire naturelle_ during his lifetime, and nine more volumes were published after his death.
- Imre Festetics (1764–1847) discovered genetics (in part) and was completely forgotten until a recent rediscovery.
- Charles Darwin (1809–1882) wrote eight important books on botany after he published the _Origin of Species_.
- Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of Darwin Medal.
- Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), Augustinian priest and scientist. Often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants.
- Eduard Strasburger (1844–1912) was a Polish-German professor who was one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century.
- Luther Burbank (1849–1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science.
- Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He showed how and where crop plants evolved. He studied and improved wheat, corn, and other cereal crops.
- G. Ledyard Stebbins (1906–2000) was an American botanist and geneticist. He was one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century.
- Simpson, Michael G. (2011). _Plant systematics_. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-051404-8.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
103
|
Belgium
|
**Belgium** (officially the **Kingdom of Belgium**; , , ) is a [country](121) in [Western Europe](45219). Its capital, [Brussels](3422), is the home of many organizations including the [European Union](2132) and [NATO](24563). Belgium is bordered by the [Netherlands](3463) in the north, [Germany](219828) to the east, [Luxembourg](2906) to the southeast and [France](291) to the south.
Belgium has an area of . Around 11.6 million people live in Belgium. It is a founding member of the [European Union](2132) and is home to its headquarters.
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Belgium
- **common name**: Belgium
- **image flag**: Flag of Belgium.svg
- **flag caption**: Top: state
Bottom: Civil
- **image flag2**: Flag of Belgium (civil).svg
- **image coat**: Great Coat of Arms of Belgium.svg
- **symbol type**: Coat of arms
- **national motto**:
- **englishmotto**: "Unity makes Strength"
- **national anthem**: "La Brabançonne"<div style="padding-top:0.2em;height:10px;"></div>
- **image map**: EU-Belgium.svg
- **image map2**: Belgium - Location Map (2013) - BEL - UNOCHA.svg
- **official languages**: Dutch language, Dutch
French language, French
German language, German
- **demonym**: Belgian
- **ethnic groups**: see _#Demographics, Demographics_
- **religion year**: 2015
- **capital**: City of Brussels, Brussels
- **largest city**: capital
- **government type**: Federalism, Federal Parliamentary system, parliamentary
constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Monarchy of Belgium, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Philippe of Belgium, Philippe
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Belgium, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Bart De Wever
- **legislature**: Belgian Federal Parliament, Federal Parliament
- **upper house**: Senate (Belgium), Senate
- **lower house**: Chamber of Representatives (Belgium), Chamber of Representatives
- **area km2**: 30,689
- **area sq mi**: 11,849
- **area rank**: 136th
- **percent water**: 0.64
- **population census**: 11,584,008
- **population census year**: January 1, 2022
- **population census rank**: 75th
- **population density km2**: 377
- **population density rank**: 36th
- **population density sq mi**: 978
- **gdp ppp year**: 2016
- **gdp ppp**: $508.598 billion
- **gdp ppp rank**: 38th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $44,881
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 20th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2016
- **gdp nominal**: $470.179 billion
- **gdp nominal rank**: 23rd
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $41,491
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 17th
- **gini year**: 2011
- **gini**: 26.3
- **hdi year**: 2014
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi**: 0.890
- **hdi rank**: 21st
- **sovereignty type**: Belgian Revolution, Independence
- **sovereignty note**: (from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, Netherlands)
- **established event1**: Declared
- **established date1**: October 4, 1830
- **established event2**: Treaty of London, 1839, Recognised
- **established date2**: April 19, 1839
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **date format**: //
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Belgium, +32
- **cctld**: .be
- **footnote a**: The flag's official proportions of 13:15 are rarely seen; proportions of 2:3 or similar are more common.
- **footnote b**: The Brussels region is the _de facto_ capital, but the City of Brussels municipality is the _de jure_ capital.
- **footnote c**: The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
|
**Belgium** (officially the **Kingdom of Belgium**; , , ) is a country in Western Europe. Its capital, Brussels, is the home of many organizations including the European Union and NATO. Belgium is bordered by the Netherlands in the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast and France to the south.
Belgium has an area of . Around 11.6 million people live in Belgium. It is a founding member of the European Union and is home to its headquarters.
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Belgium
- **common name**: Belgium
- **image flag**: Flag of Belgium.svg
- **flag caption**: Top: state
Bottom: Civil
- **image flag2**: Flag of Belgium (civil).svg
- **image coat**: Great Coat of Arms of Belgium.svg
- **symbol type**: Coat of arms
- **national motto**:
- **englishmotto**: "Unity makes Strength"
- **national anthem**: "La Brabançonne"<div style="padding-top:0.2em;height:10px;"></div>
- **image map**: EU-Belgium.svg
- **image map2**: Belgium - Location Map (2013) - BEL - UNOCHA.svg
- **official languages**: Dutch language, Dutch
French language, French
German language, German
- **demonym**: Belgian
- **ethnic groups**: see _#Demographics, Demographics_
- **religion year**: 2015
- **capital**: City of Brussels, Brussels
- **largest city**: capital
- **government type**: Federalism, Federal Parliamentary system, parliamentary
constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Monarchy of Belgium, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Philippe of Belgium, Philippe
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Belgium, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Bart De Wever
- **legislature**: Belgian Federal Parliament, Federal Parliament
- **upper house**: Senate (Belgium), Senate
- **lower house**: Chamber of Representatives (Belgium), Chamber of Representatives
- **area km2**: 30,689
- **area sq mi**: 11,849
- **area rank**: 136th
- **percent water**: 0.64
- **population census**: 11,584,008
- **population census year**: January 1, 2022
- **population census rank**: 75th
- **population density km2**: 377
- **population density rank**: 36th
- **population density sq mi**: 978
- **gdp ppp year**: 2016
- **gdp ppp**: $508.598 billion
- **gdp ppp rank**: 38th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $44,881
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 20th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2016
- **gdp nominal**: $470.179 billion
- **gdp nominal rank**: 23rd
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $41,491
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 17th
- **gini year**: 2011
- **gini**: 26.3
- **hdi year**: 2014
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi**: 0.890
- **hdi rank**: 21st
- **sovereignty type**: Belgian Revolution, Independence
- **sovereignty note**: (from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, Netherlands)
- **established event1**: Declared
- **established date1**: October 4, 1830
- **established event2**: Treaty of London, 1839, Recognised
- **established date2**: April 19, 1839
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **date format**: //
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Belgium, +32
- **cctld**: .be
- **footnote a**: The flag's official proportions of 13:15 are rarely seen; proportions of 2:3 or similar are more common.
- **footnote b**: The Brussels region is the _de facto_ capital, but the City of Brussels municipality is the _de jure_ capital.
- **footnote c**: The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
|
high
| true
| false
|
104
|
Brazil
|
**Brazil**, officially the **Federative Republic of Brazil**, is a [country](121) in [South America](1989). It is the [world](219)'s fifth largest country by area, and the seventh largest by population. The country has about 212 million people. The capital of Brazil is [Brasília](19841). Brazil was named after [brazilwood](72405), which is a tree that once grew very well along the Brazilian coast. Brazil has the most Portuguese speakers in the world and is the only country in the [Americas](227444) where [Portuguese](14400) is an official language.
## History
The first people to come to Brazil came around 9,000 B.C. That group of [indigenous people](64843) is often called the [South America](1989)n Indians and probably came from [North America](557). They practiced [hunting](33836), [foraging](191813), and [farming](19). Over thousands of years, many different indigenous people were living there.
[Pedro Álvares Cabral](279398) was the first [European](216)<nowiki/> to see Brazil. He saw it in 1500. He was from [Portugal](3466) and the Portuguese [kingdom](9597) claimed Brazil. Soon, Portugal [colonized](4527) Brazil and created colonies all along the coastline. They began to import [black](102412) [slaves](803) from [Africa](1942) and force them to work. Because of the violence of the slave masters, many of these slaves would run away into the forest and create their own communities called quilombos.
In the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Dutch and the French tried to take some land in Brazil. Dutch, French, and Portuguese started moving inland further than the [Treaty of Tordesillas](38591) said they could. This caused some fights with the Spaniards (people from [Spain](219832)) and indigenous people in the area.
In 1822, Brazil declared independence from [Portugal](3466). Soon there was [civil war](15059). Meanwhile, the quilombos survived and Brazil was bringing in more slaves than any other country in the Americas, even though many countries were beginning to legally [abolish](140810) slavery. This led to an increase in slave revolts, especially in the 1860s and 1880s, which forced the government to change the system to keep the country stable. Slavery was legally abolished in 1888.
In 1889, there was a military coup, and Pedro II had to leave the country. In 1889, Brazil became a [republic](4978). The only people who could vote were people who owned land. There were some uprisings in the 1920s because some people thought the government was unfairly helping coffee growers. Brazil joined the [Allies](16631) during [World War II](219837).
During the 1960s, the [military](3516) leader Castelo Branco overthrew the government and created a [dictatorship](7162) that was supported by the [United States](219587). It was very anti-communist and they [imprisoned](1934), [tortured](21372), or [killed](414) many people on the left. Since then, the country has become more [democratic](3195), but some people feel that there are still big problems in [health](325), [education](2113), [crime](151), [poverty](23668) and [social inequality](28488).
In August 2016, then-[president](4044) [Dilma Rousseff](269736) was removed from office because of [impeachment](43562).
In the [2018 elections](651900), the controversial conservative candidate [Jair Bolsonaro](565320) of the [Social Liberal Party](719335) (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round against [Fernando Haddad](656846), of the [Workers Party](599102) (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes. In the early 2020s, Brazil became [one of the hardest hit countries](759136) during the [COVID-19 pandemic](733960), receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the [United States](219587). In May 2021, [Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva](36780) said that he would run for a third term in the [2022 Brazilian general election](928038) against Bolsonaro. In October 2022, Lula was in first place in the first round, with 48.43% of the support from the electorate, and received 50.90% of the votes in the second round. On 8 January 2023, a week after Lula's inauguration, a mob of Bolsonaro's supporters attacked Brazil's federal government buildings in the capital, [Brasília](19841), after several weeks of unrest.
## Languages
The official language of Brazil is [Portuguese](14400). Brazil is the only country in South America that speaks Portuguese but more people in South America speak Portuguese than [Spanish](6432) because the population of Brazil is larger than the combined population of all the Spanish-speaking countries in South America.
Some people in Brazil speak [German](3346) dialects. That came from German immigrants. 2% of Brazilians speak German as their [first language](497). [Yiddish](943) is spoken by the elders of the [Jew](39429)ish community.
Other people in Brazil speak their ancestors' languages like [Italian](8249), [Japanese](3937), [Polish](18339), [Ukrainian](34087), [French](3597), [Russian](2991), [Lithuanian](45851), [Chinese](949), [Dutch](5843) and [Korean](12646). [Spanish](6432) or "Portunhol", a mix of Portuguese and Castilian (Spanish) is spoken at some of the borders. Indigenous languages as Guarani and [Aymará](19524) are the first languages of a small number of Brazilians.
## Geography
Brazil has the world's largest [rainforest](1014334), the [Amazon Rainforest](20406). It makes up 40% of the country's land area. Brazil also has other types of land, including a type of [savanna](38281), called _cerrado_, and a dry plant region named _caatinga_.
The most important cities are [Brasília](19841) (the capital), Belém, [Belo Horizonte](32104), [Curitiba](32001), [Florianópolis](32217), Fortaleza, [Goiânia](32158), [Maceió](12830), [Manaus](20398), [Porto Alegre](32156), [Recife](32222), [Rio de Janeiro](7805), [Salvador](32157), [São Paulo](7605) (the biggest city) and Vitória. Other cities are at List of largest cities in Brazil.
Brazil is divided into [26 states](14212) plus the Federal District in five regions (north, south, northeast, southeast and centre-west):
- **North**: Acre, Amazonas, Rondônia, Roraima, Pará, Amapá, Tocantins
- **Northeast**: Maranhão, Pernambuco, Ceará, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia
- **Centre-West**: Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Distrito Federal/ Federal District
- **Southeast**: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais
- **South**: Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul
The country is the fifth-largest in the world by area. It is known for its many [rainforest](1014334)s and [jungle](3986)s. It is next to every country in South America except [Chile](4008) and [Ecuador](11243).
The name Brazil comes from a tree named [brazilwood](72405).
## Culture
Brazil is the largest country in South America and the fifth-largest in the world. Its people are called Brazilians or Brasileiros (In Portuguese). The people include citizens of Portuguese or other European descent who mainly live in the South and Southeast, Africans, Native Americans, Arabs, Gypsies, and people of mixed ancestry. Brazil also has the largest Japanese community outside [Japan](403). Other East Asians follow the Japanese group. The Amazon River flows through Brazil, it is the 2nd longest river in the world (after the Nile). The current President of Brazil is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. Two major [sport](699)ing events were held in Brazil recently: the [2014 FIFA World Cup](135834) and the [2016 Summer Olympics](72829) in [Rio de Janeiro](7805).
## Sport
In 2016 Brazil became the first [South America](1989) country to host the Summer Olympics.
## Related pages
- [Civil Police (Brazil)](139028)
- [Political subdivisions of Brazil](14212)
- [CIA World Factbook](https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html)
## Infobox (country)
- **native name**: <span style="line-height:1.33em;"></span>
- **conventional long name**: <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Federative Republic of Brazil</span>
- **common name**: Brazil
- **image flag**: Flag of Brazil.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
- **symbol type**: Coat of arms
- **national motto**: _""_
<small>
"Order and Progress"</small>
- **national anthem**: Brazilian National Anthem, Hino Nacional Brasileiro
<small>
"Brazilian National Anthem"</small>
- **other symbol type**: Seal (emblem), National seal
- **other symbol**: National Seal of Brazil, Selo Nacional do Brasil
- **image map**: Brazil (orthographic projection).svg
- **capital**: Brasília
- **largest city**: São Paulo
- **languages type**: Official language
- **languages**: Brazilian Portuguese
- **languages2 type**: Other important languages
- **ethnic groups**: 47.73% White Brazilian, White
43.13% Pardo, Brown (Multiracial#Brazil, multiracial)
7.61% Black Brazilian, Black
1.09% Asian Brazilian, Asian
0.43% Indigenous peoples in Brazil, indigenous
- **ethnic groups year**: 2010
- **demonym**: Brazilian people, Brazilian
- **government type**: Federalism, Federal Presidential system, presidential constitutional republic
- **leader title1**: President of Brazil, President
- **leader name1**: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
- **leader title2**: Vice-President of Brazil, Vice President
- **leader name2**: Geraldo Alckmin
- **leader title3**: List of Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil, President of the Chamber of Deputies
- **leader name3**: Hugo Motta
- **leader title4**: President of the Senate of Brazil, President of the Senate
- **leader name4**: (politician), Davi Alcolumbre
- **leader title5**: Supreme Federal Court (Brazil)#Chief Justice, Chief Justice
- **leader name5**: Luís Roberto Barroso
- **legislature**: National Congress of Brazil, National Congress
- **upper house**: Senate of Brazil, Federal Senate
- **lower house**: Chamber of Deputies of Brazil, Chamber of Deputies
- **sovereignty type**: Brazilian Declaration of Independence, Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from Portugal
- **established event1**: Empire of Brazil, Declared
- **established date1**: 7 September 1822
- **established event2**: Empire of Brazil, Recognized
- **established date2**: 29 August 1825
- **established event3**: República Velha, Republic
- **established date3**: 15 November 1889
- **established event4**: Constitution of Brazil, Current constitution
- **established date4**: 5 October 1988
- **area rank**: 5th
- **area km2**: 8514877
- **area sq mi**: 3287597
- **percent water**: 0.65
- **area label**: Total
- **population census**: 205,823,665
- **population census rank**: 5th
- **population census year**: 2016
- **population density km2**: 23.6
- **population density sq mi**: 57
- **population density rank**: 182nd
- **gdp ppp**: $3.081 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2024
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $11,800
- **gdp nominal**: $1.47 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2025
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $10,826
- **gini**: 53.6
- **gini year**: 2025
- **hdi**: 0.682
- **hdi change**: 0.760
- **hdi rank**: 79th
- **hdi year**: 2025
- **currency**: Brazilian real, Real (R$)
- **currency code**: BRL
- **time zone**: Time in Brazil, BRT
- **utc offset**: UTC−02, -2 to UTC−05, -5
- **time zone dst**: Time in Brazil#Summer time, BRST
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy (Common Era, CE)
- **utc offset dst**: UTC−02, -2 to UTC−05, -5
- **drives on**: right
- **cctld**: .br
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Brazil, +55
|
**Brazil**, officially the **Federative Republic of Brazil**, is a country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country by area, and the seventh largest by population. The country has about 212 million people. The capital of Brazil is Brasília. Brazil was named after brazilwood, which is a tree that once grew very well along the Brazilian coast. Brazil has the most Portuguese speakers in the world and is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language.
## History
The first people to come to Brazil came around 9,000 B.C. That group of indigenous people is often called the South American Indians and probably came from North America. They practiced hunting, foraging, and farming. Over thousands of years, many different indigenous people were living there.
Pedro Álvares Cabral was the first European<nowiki/> to see Brazil. He saw it in 1500. He was from Portugal and the Portuguese kingdom claimed Brazil. Soon, Portugal colonized Brazil and created colonies all along the coastline. They began to import black slaves from Africa and force them to work. Because of the violence of the slave masters, many of these slaves would run away into the forest and create their own communities called quilombos.
In the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Dutch and the French tried to take some land in Brazil. Dutch, French, and Portuguese started moving inland further than the Treaty of Tordesillas said they could. This caused some fights with the Spaniards (people from Spain) and indigenous people in the area.
In 1822, Brazil declared independence from Portugal. Soon there was civil war. Meanwhile, the quilombos survived and Brazil was bringing in more slaves than any other country in the Americas, even though many countries were beginning to legally abolish slavery. This led to an increase in slave revolts, especially in the 1860s and 1880s, which forced the government to change the system to keep the country stable. Slavery was legally abolished in 1888.
In 1889, there was a military coup, and Pedro II had to leave the country. In 1889, Brazil became a republic. The only people who could vote were people who owned land. There were some uprisings in the 1920s because some people thought the government was unfairly helping coffee growers. Brazil joined the Allies during World War II.
During the 1960s, the military leader Castelo Branco overthrew the government and created a dictatorship that was supported by the United States. It was very anti-communist and they imprisoned, tortured, or killed many people on the left. Since then, the country has become more democratic, but some people feel that there are still big problems in health, education, crime, poverty and social inequality.
In August 2016, then-president Dilma Rousseff was removed from office because of impeachment.
In the 2018 elections, the controversial conservative candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round against Fernando Haddad, of the Workers Party (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes. In the early 2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the United States. In May 2021, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva said that he would run for a third term in the 2022 Brazilian general election against Bolsonaro. In October 2022, Lula was in first place in the first round, with 48.43% of the support from the electorate, and received 50.90% of the votes in the second round. On 8 January 2023, a week after Lula's inauguration, a mob of Bolsonaro's supporters attacked Brazil's federal government buildings in the capital, Brasília, after several weeks of unrest.
## Languages
The official language of Brazil is Portuguese. Brazil is the only country in South America that speaks Portuguese but more people in South America speak Portuguese than Spanish because the population of Brazil is larger than the combined population of all the Spanish-speaking countries in South America.
Some people in Brazil speak German dialects. That came from German immigrants. 2% of Brazilians speak German as their first language. Yiddish is spoken by the elders of the Jewish community.
Other people in Brazil speak their ancestors' languages like Italian, Japanese, Polish, Ukrainian, French, Russian, Lithuanian, Chinese, Dutch and Korean. Spanish or "Portunhol", a mix of Portuguese and Castilian (Spanish) is spoken at some of the borders. Indigenous languages as Guarani and Aymará are the first languages of a small number of Brazilians.
## Geography
Brazil has the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. It makes up 40% of the country's land area. Brazil also has other types of land, including a type of savanna, called _cerrado_, and a dry plant region named _caatinga_.
The most important cities are Brasília (the capital), Belém, Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, Florianópolis, Fortaleza, Goiânia, Maceió, Manaus, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, São Paulo (the biggest city) and Vitória. Other cities are at List of largest cities in Brazil.
Brazil is divided into 26 states plus the Federal District in five regions (north, south, northeast, southeast and centre-west):
- **North**: Acre, Amazonas, Rondônia, Roraima, Pará, Amapá, Tocantins
- **Northeast**: Maranhão, Pernambuco, Ceará, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia
- **Centre-West**: Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Distrito Federal/ Federal District
- **Southeast**: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais
- **South**: Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul
The country is the fifth-largest in the world by area. It is known for its many rainforests and jungles. It is next to every country in South America except Chile and Ecuador.
The name Brazil comes from a tree named brazilwood.
## Culture
Brazil is the largest country in South America and the fifth-largest in the world. Its people are called Brazilians or Brasileiros (In Portuguese). The people include citizens of Portuguese or other European descent who mainly live in the South and Southeast, Africans, Native Americans, Arabs, Gypsies, and people of mixed ancestry. Brazil also has the largest Japanese community outside Japan. Other East Asians follow the Japanese group. The Amazon River flows through Brazil, it is the 2nd longest river in the world (after the Nile). The current President of Brazil is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. Two major sporting events were held in Brazil recently: the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.
## Sport
In 2016 Brazil became the first South America country to host the Summer Olympics.
## Related pages
- Civil Police (Brazil)
- Political subdivisions of Brazil
- CIA World Factbook
## Infobox (country)
- **native name**: <span style="line-height:1.33em;"></span>
- **conventional long name**: <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Federative Republic of Brazil</span>
- **common name**: Brazil
- **image flag**: Flag of Brazil.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
- **symbol type**: Coat of arms
- **national motto**: _""_
<small>
"Order and Progress"</small>
- **national anthem**: Brazilian National Anthem, Hino Nacional Brasileiro
<small>
"Brazilian National Anthem"</small>
- **other symbol type**: Seal (emblem), National seal
- **other symbol**: National Seal of Brazil, Selo Nacional do Brasil
- **image map**: Brazil (orthographic projection).svg
- **capital**: Brasília
- **largest city**: São Paulo
- **languages type**: Official language
- **languages**: Brazilian Portuguese
- **languages2 type**: Other important languages
- **ethnic groups**: 47.73% White Brazilian, White
43.13% Pardo, Brown (Multiracial#Brazil, multiracial)
7.61% Black Brazilian, Black
1.09% Asian Brazilian, Asian
0.43% Indigenous peoples in Brazil, indigenous
- **ethnic groups year**: 2010
- **demonym**: Brazilian people, Brazilian
- **government type**: Federalism, Federal Presidential system, presidential constitutional republic
- **leader title1**: President of Brazil, President
- **leader name1**: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
- **leader title2**: Vice-President of Brazil, Vice President
- **leader name2**: Geraldo Alckmin
- **leader title3**: List of Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil, President of the Chamber of Deputies
- **leader name3**: Hugo Motta
- **leader title4**: President of the Senate of Brazil, President of the Senate
- **leader name4**: (politician), Davi Alcolumbre
- **leader title5**: Supreme Federal Court (Brazil)#Chief Justice, Chief Justice
- **leader name5**: Luís Roberto Barroso
- **legislature**: National Congress of Brazil, National Congress
- **upper house**: Senate of Brazil, Federal Senate
- **lower house**: Chamber of Deputies of Brazil, Chamber of Deputies
- **sovereignty type**: Brazilian Declaration of Independence, Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from Portugal
- **established event1**: Empire of Brazil, Declared
- **established date1**: 7 September 1822
- **established event2**: Empire of Brazil, Recognized
- **established date2**: 29 August 1825
- **established event3**: República Velha, Republic
- **established date3**: 15 November 1889
- **established event4**: Constitution of Brazil, Current constitution
- **established date4**: 5 October 1988
- **area rank**: 5th
- **area km2**: 8514877
- **area sq mi**: 3287597
- **percent water**: 0.65
- **area label**: Total
- **population census**: 205,823,665
- **population census rank**: 5th
- **population census year**: 2016
- **population density km2**: 23.6
- **population density sq mi**: 57
- **population density rank**: 182nd
- **gdp ppp**: $3.081 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2024
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $11,800
- **gdp nominal**: $1.47 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2025
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $10,826
- **gini**: 53.6
- **gini year**: 2025
- **hdi**: 0.682
- **hdi change**: 0.760
- **hdi rank**: 79th
- **hdi year**: 2025
- **currency**: Brazilian real, Real (R$)
- **currency code**: BRL
- **time zone**: Time in Brazil, BRT
- **utc offset**: UTC−02, -2 to UTC−05, -5
- **time zone dst**: Time in Brazil#Summer time, BRST
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy (Common Era, CE)
- **utc offset dst**: UTC−02, -2 to UTC−05, -5
- **drives on**: right
- **cctld**: .br
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Brazil, +55
|
high
| false
| false
|
105
|
Britain
|
**Britain** may mean:
- [Great Britain](3051), a large island with the countries of England, Scotland and Wales
- The [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland](856), a sovereign state in Europe with Great Britain and the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland.
- The realm of the [Monarchy of the United Kingdom](39626), comprising the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies, and British Overseas Territories.
**Britain** may also refer to:
## Places
- [British Isles](5401), an archipelago comprising Great Britain, Ireland and many other smaller islands
- British Islands, the UK, Channel Islands and Isle of Man collectively
- [Roman Britain](41112), a Roman province corresponding roughly to modern-day England and Wales
- Historical predecessors to the present-day United Kingdom:
- [Kingdom of Great Britain](12840) (1707 to 1800)
- [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](73355) (1801 to 1922)
- [Britain (place name)](824659)
- Britain, Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
## People
- Calvin Britain (1800–1862), an American politician
- Clarissa Britain (1816–1895), an American inventor
- Kristen Britain (born 1965), an American novelist
## Other uses
- [Captain Britain](1067035), a Marvel Comics superhero
## Related pages
- [England](3047)
- [Britannia](211254)
- Brittonic languages
|
**Britain** may mean:
- Great Britain, a large island with the countries of England, Scotland and Wales
- The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe with Great Britain and the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland.
- The realm of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, comprising the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies, and British Overseas Territories.
**Britain** may also refer to:
## Places
- British Isles, an archipelago comprising Great Britain, Ireland and many other smaller islands
- British Islands, the UK, Channel Islands and Isle of Man collectively
- Roman Britain, a Roman province corresponding roughly to modern-day England and Wales
- Historical predecessors to the present-day United Kingdom:
- Kingdom of Great Britain (1707 to 1800)
- United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801 to 1922)
- Britain (place name)
- Britain, Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
## People
- Calvin Britain (1800–1862), an American politician
- Clarissa Britain (1816–1895), an American inventor
- Kristen Britain (born 1965), an American novelist
## Other uses
- Captain Britain, a Marvel Comics superhero
## Related pages
- England
- Britannia
- Brittonic languages
|
medium
| false
| false
|
108
|
Chemistry
|
**Chemistry** is the [science](700) that studies what everything is made of and how it changes. It looks at [matter](50759), which is anything that takes up space. Chemistry tries to understand how matter is built, how it behaves, and how it can change. Chemistry explores how tiny particles called [atom](47)s and [molecule](520)s come together, break apart, or rearrange to form new substances. People often call chemistry the “central science” because it connects other sciences like [physics](591) (which studies [energy](4115) and [force](3220)s) and [biology](101) (which studies living things). Chemistry helps explain things all around us, like why [iron](223080) [rust](40528)s, how [food](280) gives us [energy](4115), and how [soap](807) cleans our hands.
|
**Chemistry** is the science that studies what everything is made of and how it changes. It looks at matter, which is anything that takes up space. Chemistry tries to understand how matter is built, how it behaves, and how it can change. Chemistry explores how tiny particles called atoms and molecules come together, break apart, or rearrange to form new substances. People often call chemistry the “central science” because it connects other sciences like physics (which studies energy and forces) and biology (which studies living things). Chemistry helps explain things all around us, like why iron rusts, how food gives us energy, and how soap cleans our hands.
|
high
| true
| false
|
109
|
Compound
|
**Compound** may refer to:
## Architecture and built environments
- Compound (enclosure), a group of buildings that has a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall
- Compound (fortification), a type of the above with defensive structures
- Compound (migrant labour), a hostel for migrant workers
- The Compound, an place in Palm Bay, Florida, US
- Komboni or compound, a type of [slum](55155) in Zambia
## Government and law
- Composition (fine), a legal procedure in use after the English Civil War
- Committee for Compounding with Delinquents, an English Civil War institution that allowed Parliament to compound the estates of Royalists
- Compounding treason, an offence under the common law of England
- Compounding a felony, a previous offense under the common law of England
## Linguistics
- [Compound (linguistics)](394191), a word that is made of words that add together
- Compound sentence (linguistics), a sentence that is made up of two or more independent clauses
### Biology and medicine
- Compounding, the mixing of drugs in [pharmacy](17936)
- Compound fracture, a complete fracture of bone where at least one broken piece has damaged the skin, soft tissue or surrounding body cavity
- Compound leaf, a type of leaf being divided into smaller leaflets
### Chemistry and materials science
- [Chemical compound](6101), a substance that is made up of two or more elements
- Plastic compounding, a method of mixing polymers and additives to make plastic
### Vehicles and engines
- Compound engine, a steam engine in which steam is expanded through two or three cylinders before exhaust
- Turbo-compound engine, an internal combustion engine where exhaust gases exits through power-turbines
- Compounding pressure, a method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages
### Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics
- Compound bow, a type of bow for archery
- Polyhedral compound, a polyhedron composed of multiple polyhedra sharing the same centre
### Common names
- Compound (music), an attribute of a time signature
- Compound interest, in finance, unpaid interest that is added to the principal
- Compound chocolate, an inexpensive chocolate substitute that uses cocoa but does not have cocoa butter
### Proper names
- _The Compound_ (book), a 2008 young adult novel by S. A. Bodeen
- Compound (company), a venture capital firm previously known as Metamorphic Ventures
- Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company, or Compound, a former US automobile manufacturer
|
**Compound** may refer to:
## Architecture and built environments
- Compound (enclosure), a group of buildings that has a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall
- Compound (fortification), a type of the above with defensive structures
- Compound (migrant labour), a hostel for migrant workers
- The Compound, an place in Palm Bay, Florida, US
- Komboni or compound, a type of slum in Zambia
## Government and law
- Composition (fine), a legal procedure in use after the English Civil War
- Committee for Compounding with Delinquents, an English Civil War institution that allowed Parliament to compound the estates of Royalists
- Compounding treason, an offence under the common law of England
- Compounding a felony, a previous offense under the common law of England
## Linguistics
- Compound (linguistics), a word that is made of words that add together
- Compound sentence (linguistics), a sentence that is made up of two or more independent clauses
### Biology and medicine
- Compounding, the mixing of drugs in pharmacy
- Compound fracture, a complete fracture of bone where at least one broken piece has damaged the skin, soft tissue or surrounding body cavity
- Compound leaf, a type of leaf being divided into smaller leaflets
### Chemistry and materials science
- Chemical compound, a substance that is made up of two or more elements
- Plastic compounding, a method of mixing polymers and additives to make plastic
### Vehicles and engines
- Compound engine, a steam engine in which steam is expanded through two or three cylinders before exhaust
- Turbo-compound engine, an internal combustion engine where exhaust gases exits through power-turbines
- Compounding pressure, a method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages
### Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics
- Compound bow, a type of bow for archery
- Polyhedral compound, a polyhedron composed of multiple polyhedra sharing the same centre
### Common names
- Compound (music), an attribute of a time signature
- Compound interest, in finance, unpaid interest that is added to the principal
- Compound chocolate, an inexpensive chocolate substitute that uses cocoa but does not have cocoa butter
### Proper names
- _The Compound_ (book), a 2008 young adult novel by S. A. Bodeen
- Compound (company), a venture capital firm previously known as Metamorphic Ventures
- Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company, or Compound, a former US automobile manufacturer
|
medium
| false
| false
|
110
|
Computer science
|
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:300px;">
<div class="thumbcaption"> Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of computation and practical techniques for their application.</div>
</div>
</div>
**Computer science** is the [science](700) of [information](3609). Computer scientists study different ways of reading, using, and [encoding](27592) information.
There are many different areas within computer [science](700). In some areas, scientists only work with ideas "on paper". In other areas, they use those ideas to make things like computers and [computer programs](2957).
A person who works in computer science will often need to understand [logic](4069) and [mathematics](467).
### Asking questions
This is so people can find new and easier ways to do things, and to use information to approach problems.
While computers can do some things easily (like simple math, or sorting out a list of names from A-to-Z), computers cannot answer questions when there is not enough information, or when there is no real answer. Also, computers may take too much time to finish long tasks. For example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all of the towns in the USA — so instead a computer will try to make a [close guess](60362). A computer will answer these simpler questions much faster.
### Answering the question
[Algorithm](170677)s are a specific set of instructions or steps on how to complete a task. For example, a computer scientist wants to sort playing cards. There are many ways to sort them — by suits (diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades) or by numbers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). By deciding on a set of steps to sort the cards, the scientist has created an algorithm. The scientist then needs to test whether this algorithm works. This shows how well and how fast the algorithm sorts cards.
A simple but slow algorithm is: from one end of the deck, take the first and second cards and check whether they are sorted in the correct order. If they are not, switch them so they are sorted. Do this again with the second and third cards. Repeat these steps with the third and fourth cards, and continue until you get to the end of the deck. Then, starting from the beginning of the deck again, repeat the same steps going though the deck over and over until the deck is sorted. This is called a [bubble sort](292062). This method will work, but it will take a very long time.
A better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (ace of spades, according to New Deck Order), and place it at the start. After this, look for the second card, and so on. This algorithm is much faster than bubble sort. This algorithm is called a "[selection sort](665478)".
[Ada Lovelace](238468) wrote the first computer algorithm in 1843, for a computer that was never finished. Computer software began during [World War II](219837). Computer science separated from the other sciences during the 1960s and 1970s. Now, computer science has its own methods and technical terms. It is related to [electrical engineering](8149), [mathematics](467), and language science.
Computer science has two areas of study. They are known as [theoretical computer science](52081) and applied computer science. Theoretical computer science looks at how computers do things so that computers can be faster. It also tries to figure out what the limits of computers are. Applied computer science looks at what computers can do to help people solve problems.
[Computer engineering](24970) looks at the physical [parts](4645) of computers (hardware). [Software engineering](7432) looks at the use of [computer programs](1987) and how to make them.
### Central math
- [Boolean algebra](14599) (when something can only be true or false)
- Computer numbering formats (how computers count)
- [Discrete mathematics](319970) (math with numbers a person can count)
- Symbolic logic (clear ways of talking about math)
- [Order of operations](40646) (which [math operations](286359) are performed first)
### How an ideal computer works
- [Algorithmic information theory](192167) (how easily can a computer answer a question?)
- [Complexity theory](33955) (how much [time](3219) and memory does a computer need to answer a question?)
- [Computability theory](22078) (can a computer do something?)
- [Information theory](136839) (math that looks at [data](3609) and how to process data)
- [Theory of computation](435095) (how to answer questions on a computer using algorithms)
- [Graph theory](316) (math that looks for directions from one point to another)
- Type theory (what kinds of data should computers work with?)
- Denotational semantics (math for computer languages)
- [Algorithm](170677)s (looks at how to answer a question)
- [Compiler](3742)s (turning words into computer programs)
- Lexical analysis (how to turn words into data)
- Microprogramming (how to control the most important part of a computer)
- [Operating system](587)s (big computer programs, e.g. [Linux](3620), [Microsoft Windows](927), Mac OS) to control the computer hardware and software.
- [Cryptography](5777) (hiding data)
- [Parallel computing](138530) (many instructions are carried out simultaneously)
- [Theoretical computer science](52081) (how information can be processed)
### Computer science at work
- [Artificial intelligence](6360) (making computers learn and talk, similar to people)
- [Computer architecture](90462) (designing a computer)
- [Computer graphics](6333) (making pictures with computers)
- [Computer network](316702)s (joining computers to other computers)
- [Computer program](2957) (how to tell a computer to do something)
- [Computer programming](31531) (writing, or making, computer programs)
- [Computer security](136696) (making computers and their data safe)
- [Database](39657)s (a way to sort and keep data)
- [Data structure](51975) (how to build or group data)
- [Distributed computing](66390) (using more than one computer to solve a difficult problem)
- [Information retrieval](484848) (getting data back from a computer)
- [Programming language](6362)s ([language](419)s that a [programmer](6361) uses to make computer programs)
- [Program specification](181108) (what a program is supposed to do)
- Program verification (making sure a computer program does what it should do, see [debugging](181110))
- [Robotics](566464) (using computers to control [robot](32130)s and machines)
- [Software engineering](7432) (how [programmer](6361)s write programs)
- [Blockchain](645324) (use blockchain technology for security, and privacy)
### What computer science does
- [Benchmark](531671) (testing a computer's power or speed)
- [Computer vision](251386) (how computers can see and understand images)
- [Collision detection](6501) (how computers help robots move without hitting something)
- [Data compression](3741) (making data smaller)
- [Data structure](51975)s (how computers group and sort data)
- Data acquisition (putting data into computers)
- [Design pattern](28412)s (answers to common [software engineering](7432) problems)
- [Digital signal processing](140317) (cleaning and "looking" at data)
- [File format](101295)s (how a [file](101185) is arranged)
- Human-computer interaction (how humans use computers)
- [Information security](168689) (keeping data safe from other people)
- [Internet](362) (a large [network](316702) that joins almost all computers)
- [Web application](275495)s (computer programs on the Internet)
- Optimization (making [computer programs](1987) work better)
- Software metrics (ways to measure computer programs, such as counting lines of code or number of operations)
- VLSI design (the making of a very large and complex computer system)
## Related pages
- Computing
- [Formal language](51852)
- [Turing Award](527344)
- [Computer jargon](3755)
- [Encyclopedia of Computer Terms](5821)
|
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:300px;">
<div class="thumbcaption"> Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of computation and practical techniques for their application.</div>
</div>
</div>
**Computer science** is the science of information. Computer scientists study different ways of reading, using, and encoding information.
There are many different areas within computer science. In some areas, scientists only work with ideas "on paper". In other areas, they use those ideas to make things like computers and computer programs.
A person who works in computer science will often need to understand logic and mathematics.
### Asking questions
This is so people can find new and easier ways to do things, and to use information to approach problems.
While computers can do some things easily (like simple math, or sorting out a list of names from A-to-Z), computers cannot answer questions when there is not enough information, or when there is no real answer. Also, computers may take too much time to finish long tasks. For example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all of the towns in the USA — so instead a computer will try to make a close guess. A computer will answer these simpler questions much faster.
### Answering the question
Algorithms are a specific set of instructions or steps on how to complete a task. For example, a computer scientist wants to sort playing cards. There are many ways to sort them — by suits (diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades) or by numbers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). By deciding on a set of steps to sort the cards, the scientist has created an algorithm. The scientist then needs to test whether this algorithm works. This shows how well and how fast the algorithm sorts cards.
A simple but slow algorithm is: from one end of the deck, take the first and second cards and check whether they are sorted in the correct order. If they are not, switch them so they are sorted. Do this again with the second and third cards. Repeat these steps with the third and fourth cards, and continue until you get to the end of the deck. Then, starting from the beginning of the deck again, repeat the same steps going though the deck over and over until the deck is sorted. This is called a bubble sort. This method will work, but it will take a very long time.
A better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (ace of spades, according to New Deck Order), and place it at the start. After this, look for the second card, and so on. This algorithm is much faster than bubble sort. This algorithm is called a "selection sort".
Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm in 1843, for a computer that was never finished. Computer software began during World War II. Computer science separated from the other sciences during the 1960s and 1970s. Now, computer science has its own methods and technical terms. It is related to electrical engineering, mathematics, and language science.
Computer science has two areas of study. They are known as theoretical computer science and applied computer science. Theoretical computer science looks at how computers do things so that computers can be faster. It also tries to figure out what the limits of computers are. Applied computer science looks at what computers can do to help people solve problems.
Computer engineering looks at the physical parts of computers (hardware). Software engineering looks at the use of computer programs and how to make them.
### Central math
- Boolean algebra (when something can only be true or false)
- Computer numbering formats (how computers count)
- Discrete mathematics (math with numbers a person can count)
- Symbolic logic (clear ways of talking about math)
- Order of operations (which math operations are performed first)
### How an ideal computer works
- Algorithmic information theory (how easily can a computer answer a question?)
- Complexity theory (how much time and memory does a computer need to answer a question?)
- Computability theory (can a computer do something?)
- Information theory (math that looks at data and how to process data)
- Theory of computation (how to answer questions on a computer using algorithms)
- Graph theory (math that looks for directions from one point to another)
- Type theory (what kinds of data should computers work with?)
- Denotational semantics (math for computer languages)
- Algorithms (looks at how to answer a question)
- Compilers (turning words into computer programs)
- Lexical analysis (how to turn words into data)
- Microprogramming (how to control the most important part of a computer)
- Operating systems (big computer programs, e.g. Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS) to control the computer hardware and software.
- Cryptography (hiding data)
- Parallel computing (many instructions are carried out simultaneously)
- Theoretical computer science (how information can be processed)
### Computer science at work
- Artificial intelligence (making computers learn and talk, similar to people)
- Computer architecture (designing a computer)
- Computer graphics (making pictures with computers)
- Computer networks (joining computers to other computers)
- Computer program (how to tell a computer to do something)
- Computer programming (writing, or making, computer programs)
- Computer security (making computers and their data safe)
- Databases (a way to sort and keep data)
- Data structure (how to build or group data)
- Distributed computing (using more than one computer to solve a difficult problem)
- Information retrieval (getting data back from a computer)
- Programming languages (languages that a programmer uses to make computer programs)
- Program specification (what a program is supposed to do)
- Program verification (making sure a computer program does what it should do, see debugging)
- Robotics (using computers to control robots and machines)
- Software engineering (how programmers write programs)
- Blockchain (use blockchain technology for security, and privacy)
### What computer science does
- Benchmark (testing a computer's power or speed)
- Computer vision (how computers can see and understand images)
- Collision detection (how computers help robots move without hitting something)
- Data compression (making data smaller)
- Data structures (how computers group and sort data)
- Data acquisition (putting data into computers)
- Design patterns (answers to common software engineering problems)
- Digital signal processing (cleaning and "looking" at data)
- File formats (how a file is arranged)
- Human-computer interaction (how humans use computers)
- Information security (keeping data safe from other people)
- Internet (a large network that joins almost all computers)
- Web applications (computer programs on the Internet)
- Optimization (making computer programs work better)
- Software metrics (ways to measure computer programs, such as counting lines of code or number of operations)
- VLSI design (the making of a very large and complex computer system)
## Related pages
- Computing
- Formal language
- Turing Award
- Computer jargon
- Encyclopedia of Computer Terms
|
medium
| false
| false
|
112
|
Computer
|
A **computer** is a [machine](7240) that uses [electronics](3659) to input, process, store, and output [data](2958). Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a [sensor](131145). The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in [software](1987) programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a [network](316702) such as the [internet](362), allowing the computers to communicate with each other.
The [processor](17376) of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are [digital](69896), which means that they represent information using [binary](45444) digits, or [bit](10950)s. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and [laptop](46816)s, to large computers, such as [supercomputer](143979)s.
## Characteristics
Two things that often define a computer are that it responds to a specific [instruction set](140612) in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a [program](2957). There are four main actions in a computer: [inputting](307319), [storing](82076), [outputting](307320) and processing.
Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where [automation](585263) is useful. Some examples are controlling [traffic light](43273)s, vehicles, security systems, [washing machine](43405)s and digital televisions.
Computers can be designed to do almost anything with certain information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Billions of people have a [personal computer](16971) at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading, writing, or playing games.
## Hardware
Modern computers are electronic [computer hardware](4645). They do mathematical [arithmetic](21) very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The [software](1987) uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs.
## Controls
Computers are controlled with [user interface](90897)s. [Input device](307319)s which include [keyboards](101477), computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc.computer are electronic computer hardware.
## Programs
[Computer program](2957)s are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called [machine code](3925). Most programs are written using a [programming language](6362) like [C](7628), [C++](7535), [JavaScript](20871). These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The [compiler](3742) converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.
### First computer
In 1837, [Charles Babbage](35384) proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic [Logic](4069) Unit, basic flow control, [punched card](317143)s, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular program. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to finish a part of this machine and do basic calculations.
Before the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. People began to want to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines", which in simple words means "the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."
One of the first examples of programmable machines was built by [Hero of Alexandria](393468) (c. 10–70 AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.
Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the "castle clock", an [astronomical clock](47109) invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known [programmable](31531) analog computer. The length of [day](3539) and [night](222644) could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.
Others say the first computer was made by [Charles Babbage](35384). [Ada Lovelace](238468) is considered to be the first [programmer](6361).
### The computing era
At the end of the [Middle Ages](6593), people started thinking math and [engineering](2816) were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical [calculator](193867). Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play [Tetris](18333). Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.
In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his [textile loom](69349) what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing [technology](15232) for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.
[Charles Babbage](35384) wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine". Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.
As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The [U.S. Census Bureau](52813) in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. [Herman Hollerith](463291) invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became [IBM](23439)) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.
Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.
### Analog and digital computers
In the first half of the [20th century](3407), [scientist](748)s started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used [analog](76841) circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the [1930s](2923), they invented [digital](69896) computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.
### High-scale computers
Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the [1930s](2923) to [1940s](2924). Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:
- Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine that used binary arithmetic. Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No." to add numbers together. You could also program it. In [1998](3956) the Z3 was proved to be [Turing complete](183620). Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer. It is the world's first modern computer.
- The non-programmable [Atanasoff–Berry Computer](387078) (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
- The Harvard Mark I (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program.
- The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory [ENIAC](83780) (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose [electronic](3659) computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of [electronics](3659)). At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it.
Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. [John von Neumann](105498) talked about this design in the paper _First Draft of a Report on the [EDVAC](536434)_, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in [Great Britain](3051). The first to be demonstrated working was the [Manchester](114331) Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—[EDVAC](536434)—was completed but was not ready for two years.
Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main [concept](42967) which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.
In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly [vacuum tube](9132)s. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on [integrated circuit](15002)s. [Microprocessor](5760)s, such as the [Intel 4004](679872) made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, [microcontroller](58141)s became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like [washing machine](43405)s. The 1980s also saw [home computer](98808)s and [personal computer](16971)s. With the evolution of the [Internet](362), personal computers are becoming as common as the [television](1999) and the [telephone](6222) in the household.
In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "[multimedia](61894) computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the [smartphone](278704) category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather [Nokia](23572).
## Kinds of computers
There are many types of computers. Some include:
1. [Personal computer](16971)
1. [Workstation](151062)
1. Mainframe
1. [Minicomputer](646543)
1. [Supercomputer](143979)
1. [Embedded system](138568)
1. [Tablet computer](286962)
1. [Quantum computer](208216)
A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "[Laptop](46816) computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.
There are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called "mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.
An embedded computer, also called an [embedded system](138568) is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an [alarm clock](32247) is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some [mobile phone](26786)s, automatic teller machines, [microwave oven](24198)s, [CD player](12679)s and cars are operated by embedded computers.
### All-in-one PC
All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the [monitor](9192). [Apple](7111) has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the [original Macintosh](424476) of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.
### At home
- Playing computer games
- [Writing](3681)
- Solving math problems
- Watching [video](23322)s
- Listening to [music](472) and [audio](167321)
- Audio, Video and photo editing
- Creating sound or video
- [Communicating](2817) with other people
- Using The Internet
- Online shopping
- Drawing
- Online bill payments
- Online business
### At work
- Word processing
- Spreadsheets
- Presentations
- Photo Editing
- E-mail
- Video editing/rendering/encoding
- Audio recording
- System Management
- Website Development
- Software Development
## Working methods
Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as [binary](45444) [symbol](683)s (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a [bit](10950), which comes from the words binary [digit](47551). Computers can use many bits together to represent [instructions](139324) and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a [program](2957) and is stored on the computer's [hard disk](22591). Computers work through the program by using a [central processing unit](17376), and they use fast memory called [RAM](663) (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the [hard disk](22591) because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.
An [operating system](587) tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same [operating system](587), while each computer can have its own [application programs](135761) to do what its user needs. Using the same [operating system](587)s makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some [operating system](587)s can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.
## The Internet
One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with [communication](2817). Communication is how people share [information](3609). Computers have helped people move forward in [science](700), [medicine](3793), [business](6642), and [learning](16872), because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The [Internet](362) is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an [Online game](301106).
## Computers and waste
A computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become [electronic waste](402014) when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called [product stewardship](647).
Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so [computer recycling](19566) happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the [landfill](33293), they can put [poison](6087)ous chemicals like [lead](14835) into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like [credit card](77607) numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an [identity thief](131141) can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it, for example, to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.
## Main hardware
Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.
- All computers have a CPU.
- All computers have some kind of data bus which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment.
- All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips ([integrated circuit](15002)s) which can hold information.
- Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment.
- Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other [peripheral devices](82042) connected.
A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a [human body](353), the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the [Motherboard](37806), which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides [electricity](7163) to the entire computer. The various drives ([CD](8026) drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, [USB flash drive](9060)) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a [sound card](37714) or another method of making sound, which is like [vocal cords](138520), or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are [speakers](332377), which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as [3D](7126) environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.
## Largest computer companies
||Company name||Sales (US $ billion)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|[Apple](7111)|220,000|||
|[Samsung](187084)|212,680|||
|[Foxconn](663103)|132,070|||
|[HP (Hewlett-Packard)](10290)|112,300|||
|[IBM](23439)|99,750|||
|[Hitachi](417492)|87,510|||
|[Microsoft](483)|86,830|||
|Amazon|74,450|||
|[Sony](10813)|72,340|||
|[Panasonic](443649)|70,830|||
|[Google](310)|59,820|||
|[Dell](71705)|56,940|||
|[Toshiba](192290)|56,200|||
|LG|54,750|||
|[Intel](23895)|52,700|||
|
A **computer** is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other.
The processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information using binary digits, or bits. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers, such as supercomputers.
## Characteristics
Two things that often define a computer are that it responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program. There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing.
Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions.
Computers can be designed to do almost anything with certain information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Billions of people have a personal computer at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading, writing, or playing games.
## Hardware
Modern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs.
## Controls
Computers are controlled with user interfaces. Input devices which include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc.computer are electronic computer hardware.
## Programs
Computer programs are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called machine code. Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, JavaScript. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The compiler converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.
### First computer
In 1837, Charles Babbage proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit, basic flow control, punched cards, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular program. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to finish a part of this machine and do basic calculations.
Before the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. People began to want to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines", which in simple words means "the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."
One of the first examples of programmable machines was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.
Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer. The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.
Others say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage. Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer.
### The computing era
At the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.
In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.
Charles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine". Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.
As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.
Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.
### Analog and digital computers
In the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.
### High-scale computers
Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:
- Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine that used binary arithmetic. Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No." to add numbers together. You could also program it. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete. Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer. It is the world's first modern computer.
- The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
- The Harvard Mark I (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program.
- The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it.
Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper _First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC_, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but was not ready for two years.
Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.
In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits. Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines. The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.
In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia.
## Kinds of computers
There are many types of computers. Some include:
1. Personal computer
1. Workstation
1. Mainframe
1. Minicomputer
1. Supercomputer
1. Embedded system
1. Tablet computer
1. Quantum computer
A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "Laptop computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.
There are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called "mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.
An embedded computer, also called an embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers.
### All-in-one PC
All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor. Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.
### At home
- Playing computer games
- Writing
- Solving math problems
- Watching videos
- Listening to music and audio
- Audio, Video and photo editing
- Creating sound or video
- Communicating with other people
- Using The Internet
- Online shopping
- Drawing
- Online bill payments
- Online business
### At work
- Word processing
- Spreadsheets
- Presentations
- Photo Editing
- E-mail
- Video editing/rendering/encoding
- Audio recording
- System Management
- Website Development
- Software Development
## Working methods
Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk. Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.
An operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs. Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.
## The Internet
One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication. Communication is how people share information. Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an Online game.
## Computers and waste
A computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called product stewardship.
Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it, for example, to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.
## Main hardware
Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.
- All computers have a CPU.
- All computers have some kind of data bus which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment.
- All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips (integrated circuits) which can hold information.
- Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment.
- Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other peripheral devices connected.
A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.
## Largest computer companies
||Company name||Sales (US $ billion)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Apple|220,000|||
|Samsung|212,680|||
|Foxconn|132,070|||
|HP (Hewlett-Packard)|112,300|||
|IBM|99,750|||
|Hitachi|87,510|||
|Microsoft|86,830|||
|Amazon|74,450|||
|Sony|72,340|||
|Panasonic|70,830|||
|Google|59,820|||
|Dell|56,940|||
|Toshiba|56,200|||
|LG|54,750|||
|Intel|52,700|||
|
high
| false
| false
|
114
|
Chinese
|
**Chinese** might mean:
- Anything related to the country of [China](120)
- [Chinese people](441446), the people of China
- [Chinese language](949)
- [Chinese characters](29156), the symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages
|
**Chinese** might mean:
- Anything related to the country of China
- Chinese people, the people of China
- Chinese language
- Chinese characters, the symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages
|
medium
| false
| false
|
117
|
Continent
|
A **continent** is a large area of the [land](20961) on [Earth](219) that is joined. There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general the Earth is known to have seven continents; these being, [Africa](1942), [Antarctica](1976), [Asia](1994), [Europe](216), [North America](557), [South America](1989) and [Oceania](2032) or [Australia](296251)
## Statistics
|colspan="4"|Continents of the world|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="right"|44,579,000|align="right"||align="right"|4.6 billion|
|align="right"|30,221,532|align="right"||align="right"|5|
|align="right"|24,709,000|align="right"||align="right"|580 million|
|align="right"|17,840,000|align="right"||align="right"|420 million|
|align="right"|14,000,000|align="right"||align="right"|3000|
|align="right"|10,180,000|align="right"||align="right"|750 million|
|align="right"|8,525,989|align="right"||align="right"|42 million|
|||align="right"|about 7,900,000,000|||
The most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa. The third most populous continent is Europe. The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America. In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens). In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties). In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties).
## Continents
Geologists use the term _continent_ to mean [continental crust](77166), a platform of [metamorphic](76151) and [igneous rock](13500), largely of [granitic](4940) composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than [oceanic crust](77165), which is why it "floats" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying [mantle](60875). This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.
### Australia
Some sources say that [Australia](27) is one of the seven continents. Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or [Oceania](2032). [Oceania](2032) is a region which includes [Australia](27), [New Zealand](5072) and the [Pacific Islands](33298). [Australasia](296251) includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate. This includes the islands of [New Guinea](31570), [Tasmania](7482), New Zealand and a number of smaller islands. It is on the south-eastern side of the [Wallace Line](302671), with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line.
- "It includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago... as well as the various groups of islands in the Pacific. The term has been used in very different senses".
### Zealandia
[Zealandia](700894) is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water. Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago.
### North and South America
[North America](557) and [South America](1989) together are often described as one continent, "the [Americas](227444)", or simply "America". This has the advantage of including [Central America](3596) and the [Caribbean](15218) islands. Otherwise, Central America is counted as part of North America.
### Eurasia
[Eurasia](2025) is not really an alternative, rather it is a recognition that the landmasses of Europe and Asia are continuous, and some of its largest countries are in both regions. [Russia](2964) extends from eastern Europe to the far east of Asia without a break. The [Ural Mountains](48519), which run roughly north–south, are the traditional dividing-line between Europe and Asia. For many purposes it is convenient to consider the great landmass as a single continent, Eurasia.
When [British](3051) people talk about "the Continent" (or "Continental" things) they mean the [European mainland](216). This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like "Continental [breakfast](5935)" ([rolls](4475) with [cheese](171), [jam](38618) etc. as distinct from an "English breakfast" which is a cooked breakfast).
Continents not only move but also sometimes move against each other. The Indian subcontinent has been colliding with the Eurasian continent for a while now. As these continents push against each other, they buckle and bend. Because of this, the Himalaya Mountains, with [Mount Everest](7447), are still being built up today.
### Antarctica
[Antarctica](1976) is Earth's fifth largest continent. Antarctica, the coldest place on Earth, covers Earth's [South Pole](1977). It has a surface area of ~13.6 –14 million km<sup>2</sup>: this is about 1.4 times the size of Europe, The continent only has two seasons, a brief summer and a long winter. Antarctica is a cold [desert](14509). It does not rain or snow much there. Ever since its discovery in 1812, Antarctica was a great challenge for explorers. Despite being nearly completely covered by a thick layer of ice, Antarctica has a range of aquatic and terrestrial environments.
## Origin of continents
A [craton](301343) is an old and stable part of the continental [lithosphere](60791). It is the Earth's two topmost layers, the [crust](43183) and the uppermost [mantle](517439).
There are various hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.. Continents may have been formed by giant meteorite impacts in the first billion years of Earth's existence. The question is not yet settled. What is clear is that the cratons are very old, and are the basis for the continents we see today.
## Related pages
- [List of countries by continents](4810)
|
A **continent** is a large area of the land on Earth that is joined. There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general the Earth is known to have seven continents; these being, Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania or Australia
## Statistics
|colspan="4"|Continents of the world|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="right"|44,579,000|align="right"||align="right"|4.6 billion|
|align="right"|30,221,532|align="right"||align="right"|5|
|align="right"|24,709,000|align="right"||align="right"|580 million|
|align="right"|17,840,000|align="right"||align="right"|420 million|
|align="right"|14,000,000|align="right"||align="right"|3000|
|align="right"|10,180,000|align="right"||align="right"|750 million|
|align="right"|8,525,989|align="right"||align="right"|42 million|
|||align="right"|about 7,900,000,000|||
The most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa. The third most populous continent is Europe. The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America. In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens). In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties). In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties).
## Continents
Geologists use the term _continent_ to mean continental crust, a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which is why it "floats" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying mantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.
### Australia
Some sources say that Australia is one of the seven continents. Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or Oceania. Oceania is a region which includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Australasia includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate. This includes the islands of New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand and a number of smaller islands. It is on the south-eastern side of the Wallace Line, with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line.
- "It includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago... as well as the various groups of islands in the Pacific. The term has been used in very different senses".
### Zealandia
Zealandia is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water. Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago.
### North and South America
North America and South America together are often described as one continent, "the Americas", or simply "America". This has the advantage of including Central America and the Caribbean islands. Otherwise, Central America is counted as part of North America.
### Eurasia
Eurasia is not really an alternative, rather it is a recognition that the landmasses of Europe and Asia are continuous, and some of its largest countries are in both regions. Russia extends from eastern Europe to the far east of Asia without a break. The Ural Mountains, which run roughly north–south, are the traditional dividing-line between Europe and Asia. For many purposes it is convenient to consider the great landmass as a single continent, Eurasia.
When British people talk about "the Continent" (or "Continental" things) they mean the European mainland. This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like "Continental breakfast" (rolls with cheese, jam etc. as distinct from an "English breakfast" which is a cooked breakfast).
Continents not only move but also sometimes move against each other. The Indian subcontinent has been colliding with the Eurasian continent for a while now. As these continents push against each other, they buckle and bend. Because of this, the Himalaya Mountains, with Mount Everest, are still being built up today.
### Antarctica
Antarctica is Earth's fifth largest continent. Antarctica, the coldest place on Earth, covers Earth's South Pole. It has a surface area of ~13.6 –14 million km<sup>2</sup>: this is about 1.4 times the size of Europe, The continent only has two seasons, a brief summer and a long winter. Antarctica is a cold desert. It does not rain or snow much there. Ever since its discovery in 1812, Antarctica was a great challenge for explorers. Despite being nearly completely covered by a thick layer of ice, Antarctica has a range of aquatic and terrestrial environments.
## Origin of continents
A craton is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere. It is the Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle.
There are various hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.. Continents may have been formed by giant meteorite impacts in the first billion years of Earth's existence. The question is not yet settled. What is clear is that the cratons are very old, and are the basis for the continents we see today.
## Related pages
- List of countries by continents
|
high
| false
| false
|
119
|
Classical element
|
The [Greek](13444) **classical elements** are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek [philosophy](590), [science](700) and [medicine](3793), these make up a whole.
- Fire is both hot and dry.
- Air is both hot and wet.
- Water is both cold and wet.
- Earth is both cold and dry.
The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties.
[Galen](186991) said these elements were used by [Hippocrates](5978) to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air).
In [Chinese](120) [Taoism](23663) the elements are [metal](3332), [wood](6103), [water](939), [fire](9476), [earth](219) ().
Traditionally, only four classical elements were thought to exist. Later a fifth element, known as the [luminiferous aether](276968) also known as **quintessence** was thought to be the final element.
|
The Greek **classical elements** are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole.
- Fire is both hot and dry.
- Air is both hot and wet.
- Water is both cold and wet.
- Earth is both cold and dry.
The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties.
Galen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air).
In Chinese Taoism the elements are metal, wood, water, fire, earth ().
Traditionally, only four classical elements were thought to exist. Later a fifth element, known as the luminiferous aether also known as **quintessence** was thought to be the final element.
|
high
| false
| false
|
120
|
China
|
**China** ( [Pinyin](63142): Zhōngguó) is a [cultural](3476) [region](14436), an [ancient](26891) [civilization](16146), and a [nation](3328) in [East A](32118)<nowiki/>any major inventions. Geographically, China’s longest river is the [Yangtze River](20414), which runs through mega cities and is home to many [species](19654). It is the world’s third longest river.
## Origins
The first recorded use of the word "China" is dated to be 190. It is derived from _[chīnī](29156)_, a [Persian](15621) adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by [Marco Polo](4558).
### Ancient (2100 B.C. 1500 A.D.)
[Ancient China](29263) was one of the first [civilization](16146)s, and was active since the [2nd millennium BC](375489) as a [feudal](52474) [society](689). Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent [writing](3681), with the others being [Mesopotamia](43746), the [Indus Valley civilization](29286), the Maya civilization, the [Minoan civilization](67777) of [ancient Greece](13444), and [Ancient Egypt](15034). Ancient China reached its golden age during the [Tang Dynasty](67564) (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of [Confucianism](14829) and Daoism.
Before the [Qin Dynasty](274407) united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, which typically fought each other for hundreds of years in battles for control of China. The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (姬), and were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages. A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit. Over time, these feudal states attained to power and wealth, that exceeded that of their Zhou nominal overlord, whose direct authority became confined to a very small territory near present-day [Zhengzhou](191532). These states also began to acquire some distinctive characteristics and identities of their own during the long centuries of loose control by the Zhou. Eventually, the Zhou kings were eclipsed in power by two especially problematic vassals - the Qin and Chu, and the functional independence of the Qin later led to its gradual conquest of all other vassal states and the formal supplantation of the Zhou to form a heavily centralised Empire.
The long decline of the Zhou, incidentally the longest ruling dynastic house of China, is known as the Warring States Period. Despite the bloodiness and strife of the period, this was the time when many great philosophies emerged - including [Confucianism](14829) and Daoism as a response to disintegrating central authority of the Zhou kings and fluctuating power of the vassal states, and the general uncertainty of that era. Confucianism and Daoism have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern east Asian cultures today.
Other notable dynasties include the Han (from which is derived the ethnonym the Han Chinese, which is synonymous with the older self-referential term - the Huaxia) as well as dynasties such as the Tang, Song, and Ming, which were characterised by periods of affluence, wealth, population growth, and the proliferation of literature.
During the later years, China was often raided or invaded by northern nomadic people such as the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Jurchens and the Mongols (the latter led by [Genghis Khan](6237) and [Kublai Khan](93650)). One effect of regular nomadic invasion and the collapse of native dynasties was the massive migration of Han Chinese - especially the aristocratic elite and the literati, to sparsely populated frontier regions south of the Yangzi river such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian. Several notable waves of Han Chinese immigration to Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian took place during the collapse of the Jin, the Tang, and the Song.
Some nomadic groups succeeded in conquering the whole territory of China, establishing dynasties such as the [Yuan](30397) (Mongol) and [Qing](31459) (Manchu). Each time, they also brought new elements into Chinese culture - for instance, military uniform, the qipao and the pigtail, the latter of which was deeply resented by the Han Chinese.
### A new age (1500 A.D. - Present)
While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early [2nd millennium](222441), it became an [isolationist](879374) country in the [15th century C.E.](15589) This was because Spain found enormous silver in the new continent, which was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.
By the time of the [Renaissance](25297), European powers started to take over other countries in Asia. While China was never actually taken over, many [Europe](216)an countries, such as [Britain](856) and [France](291) built spheres of influence in China. Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the [Qing Dynasty](31459), it had fallen behind other countries in [technology](15232), and was helpless to stop this from happening. This had become clear when it lost the [Opium Wars](238873) to [Britain](3051) in the [19th century](3978).
Still influenced by Western sources, China faced internal strife. The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping War occurred in China from 1851 through 1864. The [Taiping Rebellion](239803) was led by Hong Xiuquan from [Guangdong](282251). Hong Xiuquan was influenced by Christian missionaries and declared himself the brother of Jesus. Hong made his mission to bring down the Qing Dynasty. Gaining influence on the southern Chinese population, the Taiping Rebellion attracted tens of thousands of supporters. The Taiping regime successfully created a state within the Qing Empire with the capital at Nanjing. Hong called his new state the Taiping Tianguo or "The Heavenly State of Great Peace". Local armies eventually suppressed the rebellion at the final battle of Nanjing.
In 1911, the Republic of China was founded after the [Xinhai revolution](39701) led by [Sun Yat-sen](190615), but its government was very weak. [Warlord](182827)s controlled many areas. [Chiang Kai-shek](34679) led wars against them, and he became president and dictator.
In 1931, Japan invaded [Manchuria](23414), a place in the northeastern part of China. On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was called the [Second Sino-Japanese War](60119).
On December 13 of that same year, The Japanese Army killed an estimated (guessed) 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians (people) which is called [Nanjing Massacre](51347). The war later became part of [World War II](219837). The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed.
However, the [Chinese Civil War](30924) later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by [Mao Zedong](15362), [Liu Shaoqi](766132), Zhou Enlai and others. The Communists eventually won the war by uniting all the people from different positions. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.
Under Mao the country stayed poor while Taiwan became richer. His attempt at industrialization and collectivization with the [Great Leap Forward](199375) led to the deaths of many people from [famine](46018). The [Cultural Revolution](199354) caused great social upheaval. After 1976, China underwent [market economy](254415) reforms under [Deng Xiaoping](174888), and experienced rapid economic growth, which made the former progress made by Taiwan became overshadowed. China is now one of the largest economies in the world, relying mainly on exports and manufacturing. China incorporates [English](2843), and (since the 2000s) the percentage of [people who can speak English fluently](2160) is slowly increasing.
## Geography
China's landscape is vast and diverse. It ranges from the [Gobi](197340) and [Taklamakan Desert](367662)s in the north to subtropical forests in the south. The [Himalaya](14079), [Karakoram](123666), Pamir and [Tian Shan](783411) mountain ranges separate China from much of [South](25177) and [Central Asia](29350). The [Yangtze](20414) and [Yellow River](43698)s run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern coast. The Yangtze River is the third-longest river in the world while the Yellow River is the sixth-longest. China's coastline along the [Pacific Ocean](1975) is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 mi) long. It is bounded by the [Bohai](585585), [Yellow](44107), [East China](44113) and [South China seas](103872). China connects through the [Kazakh](11232) border to the [Eurasian Steppe](705762). The Eurasian Steppe has been an artery of communication between East and West since the [Neolithic](59670) through the Steppe route. The Steppe Route is the ancestor of the terrestrial [Silk Road(s)](57546).
## Science and technology
China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty. There are many Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions. For example, papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder are known as the Four Great Inventions. They became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world became better than China in science and technology.
## Demographics
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China to be about 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.
### language
Before 1911, the language was written in "[classical Chinese](304539)" (different [grammar](299), et cetera). After the [Qing dynasty](31459), the [revolutionists](40652) and scholars didn't like it, so written Chinese was changed quickly. By 1921, the language had been largely written in "modern Chinese" (based on the [spoken language](343070) of north-eastern China). As for the [romanization](33972) of Chinese, nowadays, [mainland Chinese](1961) use [pinyin](63142). Taiwanese use the [zhuyin](274613) (not in roman letters) and traditional Chinese characters instead. The common language is called Mandarin. The [Min Nan](95420) mainland Chinese and the [Taiwan](833)ese understand each other. Generally, the degree of [mutual intelligibility](152593) between speakers of different dialects is low (only understand the other speaker a little bit). A dialect may or may not have a [standard](32521) [writing system](33601).
### Chinese dialects
This page only states the six most [popular](220515) dialects. 5. Xiang (湘语) (36,000,000 speakers in 1990s); 6. [Gan language](55520); For example, [Mao Zedong](15362) spoke the Xiang dialect as his mother tongue, whereas [Chiang Kai-shek](34679) spoke Chinese with a strong Wu [accent](10610).
#### from north to south (coastal China)
1. [Wu Chinese](427582)
1. [Hokkien](307419)
1. [Hakka language](174736)
1. [Cantonese language](36400)
## Culture
China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called [Kung Fu](172765) or its first name Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and [war](942)fare than [art](6). Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor.
China has had renowned [artist](17867)s including Wong Fei Hung (Huang Fei Hung or Hwang Fei Hung) and many others. [Art](6) has also co-existed with a variety of [paint](26365)s including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the [culture](3476).
China has many traditional [festival](43661)s, such as Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-autumn Festival and so on. The most important is [Chinese New Year](84801). People in China will have holidays to celebrate these festivals.
### Festivals
Spring Festival is the [Chinese New Year](84801).
[Dragon Boat Festival](600303) is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats' offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish. Such practices, eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, become what Chinese do in this festival nowadays.
Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, [Mid-Autumn Festival](886764) is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people would sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon, celebrate the bumper harvest and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as does the "moon cakes." Hence the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.
## Politics
China's [constitution](173) states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic [dictatorship](7162) led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants". It also states the state organs "apply the principle of democratic [centralism](409855)." The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states openly being communist.
### Chinese Communist Party
The CCP is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Established in 1921, it rose to power in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong after defeating the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) in the Chinese Civil War. The CCP operates under a one-party system, maintaining strict control over the government, military, economy, and media. It follows a socialist ideology with Chinese characteristics, blending Marxist-Leninist principles with economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping in the late 20th century. Under its leadership, China has grown into the world's second-largest economy while maintaining tight political control through censorship, surveillance, and a strong security apparatus. Today, the CCP continues to shape China's domestic and foreign policies, emphasizing national unity, economic development, and global influence.
## Related pages
- China–Philippines territorial disputes
## Other websites
- [Map of China](http://www.china-map-guide.com/)
- [City Photo Gallery of China](http://www.accesschinatravel.com/photos.html)
- [China | Geography | People | Economy](https://www.gairegaurav.com.np/2021/06/china-facts.html)
- [China](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/China) -Citizendium
## Infobox (chinese)
- **pic**: Chinaimg.png
- **p**: Zhōngguó
- **bpmf**: ㄓㄨㄥㄍㄨㄛˊ
- **w**: Chung<sup>1</sup>kuo<sup>2</sup>
- **myale**: jung<sup>1</sup>gwo<sup>2</sup>
- **gr**: Jong gwo
- **mps**: Jung<sup>1</sup>guo<sup>2</sup>
- **tp**: Jhong<sup>1</sup>guo<sup>2</sup>
- **xej**: ﺟْﻮ ﻗُﻮَع
- **poj**: Tiong-kok
- **gan**: Tung-koe̍t
- **wuu**: Tson<sup>平</sup>kueh<sup>入</sup>
- **j**: Zung<sup>1</sup>gwok<sup>3</sup>
- **y**: Jūnggwok
- **h**: Dung<sup>24</sup>Gued<sup>2</sup>
- **hsn**: <sup>55</sup>kua<sup>13</sup>
- **cha**: <sup>33</sup>kue<sup>24</sup>
|
**China** ( Pinyin: Zhōngguó) is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and a nation in East A<nowiki/>any major inventions. Geographically, China’s longest river is the Yangtze River, which runs through mega cities and is home to many species. It is the world’s third longest river.
## Origins
The first recorded use of the word "China" is dated to be 190. It is derived from _chīnī_, a Persian adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by Marco Polo.
### Ancient (2100 B.C. 1500 A.D.)
Ancient China was one of the first civilizations, and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. Ancient China reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of Confucianism and Daoism.
Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, which typically fought each other for hundreds of years in battles for control of China. The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (姬), and were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages. A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit. Over time, these feudal states attained to power and wealth, that exceeded that of their Zhou nominal overlord, whose direct authority became confined to a very small territory near present-day Zhengzhou. These states also began to acquire some distinctive characteristics and identities of their own during the long centuries of loose control by the Zhou. Eventually, the Zhou kings were eclipsed in power by two especially problematic vassals - the Qin and Chu, and the functional independence of the Qin later led to its gradual conquest of all other vassal states and the formal supplantation of the Zhou to form a heavily centralised Empire.
The long decline of the Zhou, incidentally the longest ruling dynastic house of China, is known as the Warring States Period. Despite the bloodiness and strife of the period, this was the time when many great philosophies emerged - including Confucianism and Daoism as a response to disintegrating central authority of the Zhou kings and fluctuating power of the vassal states, and the general uncertainty of that era. Confucianism and Daoism have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern east Asian cultures today.
Other notable dynasties include the Han (from which is derived the ethnonym the Han Chinese, which is synonymous with the older self-referential term - the Huaxia) as well as dynasties such as the Tang, Song, and Ming, which were characterised by periods of affluence, wealth, population growth, and the proliferation of literature.
During the later years, China was often raided or invaded by northern nomadic people such as the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Jurchens and the Mongols (the latter led by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan). One effect of regular nomadic invasion and the collapse of native dynasties was the massive migration of Han Chinese - especially the aristocratic elite and the literati, to sparsely populated frontier regions south of the Yangzi river such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian. Several notable waves of Han Chinese immigration to Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian took place during the collapse of the Jin, the Tang, and the Song.
Some nomadic groups succeeded in conquering the whole territory of China, establishing dynasties such as the Yuan (Mongol) and Qing (Manchu). Each time, they also brought new elements into Chinese culture - for instance, military uniform, the qipao and the pigtail, the latter of which was deeply resented by the Han Chinese.
### A new age (1500 A.D. - Present)
While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found enormous silver in the new continent, which was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.
By the time of the Renaissance, European powers started to take over other countries in Asia. While China was never actually taken over, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China. Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening. This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century.
Still influenced by Western sources, China faced internal strife. The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping War occurred in China from 1851 through 1864. The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan from Guangdong. Hong Xiuquan was influenced by Christian missionaries and declared himself the brother of Jesus. Hong made his mission to bring down the Qing Dynasty. Gaining influence on the southern Chinese population, the Taiping Rebellion attracted tens of thousands of supporters. The Taiping regime successfully created a state within the Qing Empire with the capital at Nanjing. Hong called his new state the Taiping Tianguo or "The Heavenly State of Great Peace". Local armies eventually suppressed the rebellion at the final battle of Nanjing.
In 1911, the Republic of China was founded after the Xinhai revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, but its government was very weak. Warlords controlled many areas. Chiang Kai-shek led wars against them, and he became president and dictator.
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, a place in the northeastern part of China. On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was called the Second Sino-Japanese War.
On December 13 of that same year, The Japanese Army killed an estimated (guessed) 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians (people) which is called Nanjing Massacre. The war later became part of World War II. The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed.
However, the Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai and others. The Communists eventually won the war by uniting all the people from different positions. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.
Under Mao the country stayed poor while Taiwan became richer. His attempt at industrialization and collectivization with the Great Leap Forward led to the deaths of many people from famine. The Cultural Revolution caused great social upheaval. After 1976, China underwent market economy reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and experienced rapid economic growth, which made the former progress made by Taiwan became overshadowed. China is now one of the largest economies in the world, relying mainly on exports and manufacturing. China incorporates English, and (since the 2000s) the percentage of people who can speak English fluently is slowly increasing.
## Geography
China's landscape is vast and diverse. It ranges from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the north to subtropical forests in the south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern coast. The Yangtze River is the third-longest river in the world while the Yellow River is the sixth-longest. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 mi) long. It is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe. The Eurasian Steppe has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route. The Steppe Route is the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s).
## Science and technology
China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty. There are many Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions. For example, papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder are known as the Four Great Inventions. They became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world became better than China in science and technology.
## Demographics
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China to be about 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.
### language
Before 1911, the language was written in "classical Chinese" (different grammar, et cetera). After the Qing dynasty, the revolutionists and scholars didn't like it, so written Chinese was changed quickly. By 1921, the language had been largely written in "modern Chinese" (based on the spoken language of north-eastern China). As for the romanization of Chinese, nowadays, mainland Chinese use pinyin. Taiwanese use the zhuyin (not in roman letters) and traditional Chinese characters instead. The common language is called Mandarin. The Min Nan mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese understand each other. Generally, the degree of mutual intelligibility between speakers of different dialects is low (only understand the other speaker a little bit). A dialect may or may not have a standard writing system.
### Chinese dialects
This page only states the six most popular dialects. 5. Xiang (湘语) (36,000,000 speakers in 1990s); 6. Gan language; For example, Mao Zedong spoke the Xiang dialect as his mother tongue, whereas Chiang Kai-shek spoke Chinese with a strong Wu accent.
#### from north to south (coastal China)
1. Wu Chinese
1. Hokkien
1. Hakka language
1. Cantonese language
## Culture
China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art. Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor.
China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung (Huang Fei Hung or Hwang Fei Hung) and many others. Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.
China has many traditional festivals, such as Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-autumn Festival and so on. The most important is Chinese New Year. People in China will have holidays to celebrate these festivals.
### Festivals
Spring Festival is the Chinese New Year.
Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats' offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish. Such practices, eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, become what Chinese do in this festival nowadays.
Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people would sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon, celebrate the bumper harvest and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as does the "moon cakes." Hence the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.
## Politics
China's constitution states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants". It also states the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism." The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states openly being communist.
### Chinese Communist Party
The CCP is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Established in 1921, it rose to power in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong after defeating the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) in the Chinese Civil War. The CCP operates under a one-party system, maintaining strict control over the government, military, economy, and media. It follows a socialist ideology with Chinese characteristics, blending Marxist-Leninist principles with economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping in the late 20th century. Under its leadership, China has grown into the world's second-largest economy while maintaining tight political control through censorship, surveillance, and a strong security apparatus. Today, the CCP continues to shape China's domestic and foreign policies, emphasizing national unity, economic development, and global influence.
## Related pages
- China–Philippines territorial disputes
## Other websites
- Map of China
- City Photo Gallery of China
- China | Geography | People | Economy
- China -Citizendium
## Infobox (chinese)
- **pic**: Chinaimg.png
- **p**: Zhōngguó
- **bpmf**: ㄓㄨㄥㄍㄨㄛˊ
- **w**: Chung<sup>1</sup>kuo<sup>2</sup>
- **myale**: jung<sup>1</sup>gwo<sup>2</sup>
- **gr**: Jong gwo
- **mps**: Jung<sup>1</sup>guo<sup>2</sup>
- **tp**: Jhong<sup>1</sup>guo<sup>2</sup>
- **xej**: ﺟْﻮ ﻗُﻮَع
- **poj**: Tiong-kok
- **gan**: Tung-koe̍t
- **wuu**: Tson<sup>平</sup>kueh<sup>入</sup>
- **j**: Zung<sup>1</sup>gwok<sup>3</sup>
- **y**: Jūnggwok
- **h**: Dung<sup>24</sup>Gued<sup>2</sup>
- **hsn**: <sup>55</sup>kua<sup>13</sup>
- **cha**: <sup>33</sup>kue<sup>24</sup>
|
high
| false
| false
|
121
|
Country
|
A **country** is a distinct [territory](156768) with defined [border](21682)s, boundaries, [people](4037) and [government](312). Most countries are [sovereign states](195252) while [others](101527) make up one part of a larger state. The people that live in a country are referred to as a [nation](3328). The government that runs the country is called the [state](798). [United States](219587), [Canada](219589), [United Kingdom](856), [Australia](27), [New Zealand](5072), [France](291), [Germany](219828), [Japan](403), [Ireland](5074), [Italy](363), [Mexico](1935), [Spain](219832), [Brazil](104), [Portugal](3466), [India](391), [China](120), and other countries.
The people who live in a country are referred to as a [nation](3328). The government that runs the country is called the [state](798).
## Number of countries
There is no universally-accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are. The minimum answer is 195, the number recognized by the [United Nations](4549), which has 193 members.
This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the [United Kingdom](856), the [Kingdom of the Netherlands](3463) and the [Kingdom of Denmark](208). which could add anywhere from three to eleven more countries.
There are multiple organisation<nowiki/>s, which have their own lists of countries. For example, the Travellers Century Club recognizes 330 countries as of January 2022.
## Disputed countries
[Palestine](736038) is often classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing dispute over its independence with [Israel](64543).
There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition such as [Kosovo](40777), [Transnistria](30845), [Abkhazia](28890), [South Ossetia](29488), [Northern Cyprus](28917), [Chechnya](69121), [Tibet](35288), [East Turkestan](181130), and [Somaliland](19870). They are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often, any of those territories may be counted as countries based purely on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of United Nations members, there could be anything up to 211 countries.
There are, however, many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted.
Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be many more than 193 countries in the world. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions.
## Constituent country
"[Constituent country](101527)" is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries are part of a [sovereign state](195252). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former [Yugoslavia](15797), and [Europe](216)an institutions like the [Council of Europe](32209) often use it in reference to the [European Union](2132).
## Territorial dispute
A disputed territory is a territory whose [sovereignty](20561) is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually, the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, and the other country does not [recognize](32224) the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas such as [Antarctica](1976) on which no country has effective or total control.
## Nation state
A [nation state](135605) is a sovereign country in which most citizens are somewhat homogeneous in terms of [culture](3476), [religion](653), [language](419), [ethnicity](234), etc.
## Related pages
- [State](798)
- [Sovereign state](195252)
- [Nation](3328)
## Other websites
- [Geography Trainer 1.3.5 - Educational game aimed at school children to teach world capitals](http://www.dinksoftware.com/geography_trainer.php)
- [Geography Trainer US States 1.1 game](http://www.dinksoftware.com/geography_trainer_us_states.php)
- [List of countries](http://www.guavastudios.com/country-list.htm)
- [Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the _CIA World Factbook_](http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/countries/atlas_index.html)
|
A **country** is a distinct territory with defined borders, boundaries, people and government. Most countries are sovereign states while others make up one part of a larger state. The people that live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state. United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, France, Germany, Japan, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Spain, Brazil, Portugal, India, China, and other countries.
The people who live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state.
## Number of countries
There is no universally-accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are. The minimum answer is 195, the number recognized by the United Nations, which has 193 members.
This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark. which could add anywhere from three to eleven more countries.
There are multiple organisation<nowiki/>s, which have their own lists of countries. For example, the Travellers Century Club recognizes 330 countries as of January 2022.
## Disputed countries
Palestine is often classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing dispute over its independence with Israel.
There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition such as Kosovo, Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Chechnya, Tibet, East Turkestan, and Somaliland. They are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often, any of those territories may be counted as countries based purely on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of United Nations members, there could be anything up to 211 countries.
There are, however, many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted.
Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be many more than 193 countries in the world. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions.
## Constituent country
"Constituent country" is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries are part of a sovereign state. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union.
## Territorial dispute
A disputed territory is a territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually, the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, and the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas such as Antarctica on which no country has effective or total control.
## Nation state
A nation state is a sovereign country in which most citizens are somewhat homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, language, ethnicity, etc.
## Related pages
- State
- Sovereign state
- Nation
## Other websites
- Geography Trainer 1.3.5 - Educational game aimed at school children to teach world capitals
- Geography Trainer US States 1.1 game
- List of countries
- Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the _CIA World Factbook_
|
high
| false
| false
|
122
|
Colchester
|
**Colchester** is a [city](144) in the northern part of the [English](3047) [county](52443) of [Essex](7322). It has a [population](4037) of 130,245 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest [Roman](24298) town in England.
## History
Before Roman times, Colchester was _Camulodunon_. This is a [Celtic](24088) name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic [god](20464) of [war](942). The Romans called Colchester _Camulodunum_ (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of [Roman Britain](41112). Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD. The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region.
The Roman town of _Camulodunum_, officially known as _Colonia Victricensis_, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants.
The church at the [Benedictine](92282) abbey of [Saint John the Baptist](29129) was destroyed in [1539](9260). This action was part of the [dissolution of the monasteries](188) by King [Henry VIII](7689). Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit.
King Cunobelinus (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester.
Until 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed [letters patent](547202) to grant it [city status](76042). This was planned as part of [her Platinum Jubilee](846776) celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released.
## Twin cities
Colchester is twinned with the following cities:
- [Imola](824342), [Italy](363)
- [Wetzlar](14823), [Germany](219828)
- [Avignon](30153), [France](291)
## Bibliography
- B D'Ambrosio. "Roman Camulodunum". Universita' Statale di Genova (Genova University). Genova, 2007
## Infobox (uk place)
- **country**: England
- **official name**: Colchester
- **population**: 130,245
- **population ref**: (United Kingdom Census 2021, 2021 census)
- **shire district**: Borough of Colchester, Colchester
- **shire county**: Essex
- **region**: East of England
- **constituency westminster**: Colchester (UK Parliament constituency), Colchester
- **post town**: COLCHESTER
- **postcode area**: CO
- **postcode district**: CO1 – CO7
- **dial code**: 01206
- **os grid reference**: TL997254
- **static image**: Colchester town center.jpg
- **static image caption**: <small>Colchester Town Centre</small>
|
**Colchester** is a city in the northern part of the English county of Essex. It has a population of 130,245 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England.
## History
Before Roman times, Colchester was _Camulodunon_. This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic god of war. The Romans called Colchester _Camulodunum_ (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of Roman Britain. Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD. The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region.
The Roman town of _Camulodunum_, officially known as _Colonia Victricensis_, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants.
The church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539. This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII. Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit.
King Cunobelinus (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester.
Until 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed letters patent to grant it city status. This was planned as part of her Platinum Jubilee celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released.
## Twin cities
Colchester is twinned with the following cities:
- Imola, Italy
- Wetzlar, Germany
- Avignon, France
## Bibliography
- B D'Ambrosio. "Roman Camulodunum". Universita' Statale di Genova (Genova University). Genova, 2007
## Infobox (uk place)
- **country**: England
- **official name**: Colchester
- **population**: 130,245
- **population ref**: (United Kingdom Census 2021, 2021 census)
- **shire district**: Borough of Colchester, Colchester
- **shire county**: Essex
- **region**: East of England
- **constituency westminster**: Colchester (UK Parliament constituency), Colchester
- **post town**: COLCHESTER
- **postcode area**: CO
- **postcode district**: CO1 – CO7
- **dial code**: 01206
- **os grid reference**: TL997254
- **static image**: Colchester town center.jpg
- **static image caption**: <small>Colchester Town Centre</small>
|
medium
| false
| false
|
127
|
Cartography
|
**Cartography** is making [map](7647)s. It is part of [geography](296). How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using [computer](112)s and people usually see maps on computer screens<nowiki/>. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.
Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.
For many centuries maps were usually carefully [drawn](5316) onto paper or [parchment](289323). Now they are made on a [computer](112) which makes them look neater with accurate images.
Maps are of two main types:
- General maps with a variety of features.
- [Thematic map](417158)s with particular themes for specific audiences.
General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social [data](2958).
## Related pages
- [Geodesy](326095)
- [Map projection](316327)
- [Surveying](80823)
- [Topography](9163)
|
**Cartography** is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens<nowiki/>. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.
Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.
For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images.
Maps are of two main types:
- General maps with a variety of features.
- Thematic maps with particular themes for specific audiences.
General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data.
## Related pages
- Geodesy
- Map projection
- Surveying
- Topography
|
medium
| false
| false
|
129
|
Creator
|
A **creator** is a person who creates something.
In some [religion](653)s ([Judaism](219593), [Christianity](219595), [Islam](219592)) [God](305) (or [Allah](17263) meaning **the God** in [Arabic](8522)) is the most important and original creator of the whole [universe](858) - including [Man](502310) who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to [observe](48) it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is [creating](5433), like an [idea](18603), can be [owned](46940) as [property](3336) comes from the [ethical tradition](13467)s and [legal code](69942)s that came from these religions.
In other traditions ([Buddhism](3496), [Native American mythology](324019)) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the [universe](858). Stewardship of home, [land and all of Earth](316784) is a test for participating in this, or just good sense.
## Related pages
- [Creation myth](101287)
|
A **creator** is a person who creates something.
In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning **the God** in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions.
In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense.
## Related pages
- Creation myth
|
low
| false
| false
|
131
|
Contact network
|
**Contact network** may mean:
- Creative network
- [Social network](5431)
- [Power network](3493)
|
**Contact network** may mean:
- Creative network
- Social network
- Power network
|
low
| false
| false
|
133
|
Chorizo
|
**Chorizo** is a [pork](7751) (pig-meat) [sausage](710) which people first made in the [Iberian Peninsula](51945). It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, [chili pepper](29187) and [paprika](132535). The special [taste](13407) of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it.
In the [western hemisphere](24338), the [Mexican](1935) and [Caribbean](15218) types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.
Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be [eaten](30454) without [cooking](146). Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of [meal](7728). It can also be used in place of ground [beef](4716) or pork.
Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a [snack](18906), or cooked. Dishes like stews, [soups](21611) and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In [Spain](219832), chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with [beans](60473) and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red [wine](935). In [Latin America](7170), chorizo is made with a mixture of [chili peppers](29187) and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways.
|
**Chorizo** is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it.
In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.
Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.
Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
134
|
Creativity
|
**Creativity** is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the [process](202920) of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.
As a personal ability, it is difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging who and what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things that are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.
Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes [human](502310)s different from [ape](30643)s. Others recognize that even apes, other [primate](21276)s, other [mammal](525)s, and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all [culture](3476) comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, [human science](5434) should focus on it (pay special attention to it): [Ethics](226) for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. [Politics](592) would focus on the [political virtues](5158) that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of [education](2113). [Linguistics](20194) might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in [grammar](299).
Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or [intellectual property](351637) in the [law](426)) are a way to [reward](677) creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is [copyright](1586) which is supposed to pay [writers](15228) and [artist](17867)s, but may only pay [lawyer](19345)s to make (imitative) arguments in [court](7636).
Creativity is a central question in [economics](246), where it is known as **ingenuity** (the ability to come up with new ideas) or **individual capital** - [capacities](38956) that [individual](33108)s have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a [patent](19139) or [training](64224) system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the [economic growth](790908) of [cities](144) based on creativity.
## Related pages
- [Art](6)
- [Genius](80699)
- [Imagination](3888)
- [Innovation](98423)
|
**Creativity** is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.
As a personal ability, it is difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging who and what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things that are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.
Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals, and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.
Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.
Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as **ingenuity** (the ability to come up with new ideas) or **individual capital** - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.
## Related pages
- Art
- Genius
- Imagination
- Innovation
|
medium
| false
| false
|
135
|
Catharism
|
The **Cathar** faith was a version of [Christianity](219595). They were usually considered [Gnostics](86409). The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word _katharos_ meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, _The Gnostics_) or "the pure ones".
They used [Bible translations](239649) in the language people spoke. Most other [Western Christians](332406) used a Bible in [Latin](97543). Latin was spoken only by the [priest](19070)s.
## Doctrines
The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of [reincarnation](4733) and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to [life could be escaped](803282) by a [ritual](25603) cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of [sin](3639).
Women were prominent in the faith. They were pacifists. They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and [cows milk](3398). The only exception to this was [fish](285). Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.
They preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian rules of [marriage](400390) and only believed in the [New Testament](11265). An earlier 10th-century [Bulgarian](15937) heresy, Bogomilism and also [Manichaeism](142734) started some of these trends.
## Problems
In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in [England](3047) wiped out the English Cathars. They were also suppressed in Northern France. In 1167, Cathar [bishop](33129)s met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the [Languedoc](542025) nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects". Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.
The [Catholic Church](10754) was against Catharism, seeing it as a [heresy](25679). In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an [economy](8377) that was starting to grow, and a social class of [merchant](48817)s and [peasant](38283)s was starting to grow. Peasants owned their own [land](20961). Meanwhile, in other parts of [Europe](216), peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of [feudalism](52474). There was a strong central [absolute monarchy](323372) that did not exist in the South of France. The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system. R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack. However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems: [Troubadors](427099), who combined some of the traditions of the [Bard](107945)s of the Celts, and [Jew](39429)s were both part of the [multicultural](60432) society in the South of [France](291). Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures. The 12th century Roman Catholic [Monk](14322)s were founding their [monasteries](42054) outside the towns, drawing the best people there.
The Cathars had little competition. The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best people. Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds. Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.
### Methods
The Pope ordered a [crusade](16026) against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the [Holy Land](300911). This was an [absolution](283410) of all sin.
In the Languedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friends, not foe, and demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered. The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, "we would rather be [flayed alive](5435)."
A mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote "Kill them all, God knows his own" on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church. It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all. The crusade became known as the [Albigensian crusade](164899) after the town of [Albi](102046). It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years. The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of [burning at the stake](360116) that would continue in the [Inquisition](75020) of the [Counter-Reformation](32464). At the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong....
Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was killed in 1321.
## Other websites
- http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html
- http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html
- http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html
- http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/cathar.html
- http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/cathars.html
- [Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition](http://cathars.philosophi.org)
|
The **Cathar** faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word _katharos_ meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, _The Gnostics_) or "the pure ones".
They used Bible translations in the language people spoke. Most other Western Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests.
## Doctrines
The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of sin.
Women were prominent in the faith. They were pacifists. They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.
They preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament. An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends.
## Problems
In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars. They were also suppressed in Northern France. In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects". Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.
The Catholic Church was against Catharism, seeing it as a heresy. In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of merchants and peasants was starting to grow. Peasants owned their own land. Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism. There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France. The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system. R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack. However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems: Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France. Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures. The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there.
The Cathars had little competition. The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best people. Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds. Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.
### Methods
The Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an absolution of all sin.
In the Languedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friends, not foe, and demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered. The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, "we would rather be flayed alive."
A mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote "Kill them all, God knows his own" on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church. It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all. The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi. It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years. The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation. At the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong....
Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was killed in 1321.
## Other websites
- http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html
- http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html
- http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html
- http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/cathar.html
- http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/cathars.html
- Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition
|
medium
| false
| false
|
136
|
Cosmology
|
**Cosmology** is the branch of [astronomy](48) that deals with the [universe](858).
[NASA](24512) defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".
Modern cosmology is dominated by the [Big Bang](4484) theory, which brings together observational astronomy and [particle physics](30130).
Though the word _cosmology_ is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's _Cosmologia Generalis_), the study of the universe has a long history.
## History
Until the [Renaissance](25297) people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and [star](3017)s. With the invention of the [telescope](2911), we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the [Milky Way](505) was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and [spectroscopy](15431), astronomers (for example [Edwin Hubble](265802)) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies.
Modern cosmology is considered to have started in [1917](11701) with the final paper of [Albert Einstein's](2138) [theory of general relativity](8799). This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a [paradigm shift](817435). Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when [Edwin Hubble](265802) found [Cepheid Variables](390795) in the [Andromeda Galaxy](249671) in 1926.
The Big Bang model was then proposed by [Belgian](103) [priest](19070), [Georges Lemaître](350796) in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's [discovery](772778) of the [redshift](17384) in 1929. Later the discovery of [cosmic microwave background radiation](183307) was made. This was found by [Arno Penzias](857588) and [Robert Woodrow Wilson](323874) in 1964.
All of these discoveries have been supported in the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and [Planck satellites](682271). Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and [SDSS](813094). An astronomical survey looks at a place in [space](2899). A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.
On 1 December 2014, at the _Planck 2014_ meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is [13.8 billion years old](413580) and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% [dark matter](34685) and 68.5% [dark energy](169381).
According to Dr Robert Massey, deputy director of the [Royal Astronomical Society](789946), the evidence for a rethink of what has been a central plank of astronomy is growing.
"This is the seventh large structure discovered in the universe that contradicts the idea that the cosmos is smooth on the largest scales. If these structures are real, then it's definitely food for thought for cosmologists and the accepted thinking on how the universe has evolved over time," he said.
## Key terms
- [Mass](513)
- [Gravity](2901)
- [Electromagnetic radiation](18319)
- [Dark matter](34685)
- [Dark energy](169381)
- [Speed of light](4322)
- [Age of the Universe](413580)
## Related pages
- [String theory](744)
- [Earth science](218)
- [Inflation](401973)
|
**Cosmology** is the branch of astronomy that deals with the universe.
NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".
Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
Though the word _cosmology_ is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's _Cosmologia Generalis_), the study of the universe has a long history.
## History
Until the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies.
Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.
The Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964.
All of these discoveries have been supported in the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.
On 1 December 2014, at the _Planck 2014_ meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.
According to Dr Robert Massey, deputy director of the Royal Astronomical Society, the evidence for a rethink of what has been a central plank of astronomy is growing.
"This is the seventh large structure discovered in the universe that contradicts the idea that the cosmos is smooth on the largest scales. If these structures are real, then it's definitely food for thought for cosmologists and the accepted thinking on how the universe has evolved over time," he said.
## Key terms
- Mass
- Gravity
- Electromagnetic radiation
- Dark matter
- Dark energy
- Speed of light
- Age of the Universe
## Related pages
- String theory
- Earth science
- Inflation
|
medium
| false
| false
|
142
|
Church (building)
|
A **church** is a [building](6081) that was constructed to allow people to meet to [worship](51910) together. These people are usually [Christians](219595), or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably [Scientology](76527).
The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in [Episcopalian](66340) and [Lutheran](38293) churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called [chapel](57790)s. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the [diocese](260259). Each diocese has a [cathedral](5579). In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of [bishop](33129)s.
## History of church buildings
In the [early days of Christianity](230941) people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around A.D. 260 when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services.
After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in A.D. [337](109664), Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman [basilica](97072)s. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the [Middle Ages](6593).
## The parts of a church
There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts:
- The **[nave](261298)** is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit.
- The **aisles** are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave.
- The **transept**, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of [Jesus](219585)'s death on a cross.
- The **chancel** leads up to the [altar](29576) at the top of the church. The altar is in the **sanctuary**. The word “[sanctuary](122167)” means “sacred place”. People were not allowed to be [arrest](47046)ed in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the [east](4033) end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church “faces east”.
- Churches will also have a **tower** or [steeple](50590), usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept.
In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of [holy water](238648) near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman [basilica](97072)s had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The [font](109665) is a bowl where people (often babies) are [baptized](25219). This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.
Traditionally the nave has long [bench](14805)es for the congregation to sit on. These are called **pews**. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the **pulpit** where the priest preaches (these talks are called “[sermon](25732)s”). There is also a [lectern](109667) (like a large [music stand](67616)) from where the lessons (the [Bible](2866) readings) are read.
If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be [pillars](45784) which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the **triforium**. Over the triforium is the **clerestory** which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.
The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like “rude”) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the [epistle](109669) and the [gospel](11266). Sometimes people sang from there.
Inside the chancel are the benches where the [choir](37796) sit. These are called **choir stalls**. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called “cantoris” (the side where the “[cantor](327831)” sits) and those on the right (south side) are called “decani” (the side where the [deacon](13852) sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called **misericords** (from the Latin word for “mercy”). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.
Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called **squints**. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an **aumbry**. It is a cupboard for [communion](19125) [wine](935) and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.
The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an **apse**. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the “Lady Chapel”.
## Churches through the ages
The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries.
### English churches
In [English](3047) churches there were several different periods of architecture:
- The Saxon period ([700](15637)–[1050](847109)) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of [wood](6103).
- The [Norman](109672) period ([1050](847109)–[1190](15515)) came from the style called [Romanesque](74929) which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called “mouldings”. The tops of the pillars looked like [cushion](38288)s, so they were called “cushion capitals”. The windows were narrow and rounded at the top.
- Early English or Gothic architecture ([1190](15515)–[1280](25366)) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of [Salisbury Cathedral](109674).
- The Decorated style of architecture ([1280](25366)–[1360](34112))was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. For that reason, not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time.
- The Perpendicular style ([1360](34112)–[1540](16524)) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting. This can be seen in [Westminster Abbey](14075) and [King's College Chapel, Cambridge](109708). Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period.
In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the [Great Fire of London](43473) many new churches were built by the architect Sir [Christopher Wren](109709). They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.
Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in [Milton Keynes](9564). Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful [mosaic](99830) glass windows. [Coventry Cathedral](109710) is a famous example of a modern church building.
## Related pages
- [Cathedral](5579)
- [Chapel](57790)
- [Choir (music)](37796)
## References
- Encyclopædia Britannica, 1973
## Other websites
- [Virtual Church](http://www.ortodoksi.net/virtuaalikirkko/index.html)
|
A **church** is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology.
The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops.
## History of church buildings
In the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around A.D. 260 when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services.
After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in A.D. 337, Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages.
## The parts of a church
There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts:
- The **nave** is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit.
- The **aisles** are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave.
- The **transept**, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of Jesus's death on a cross.
- The **chancel** leads up to the altar at the top of the church. The altar is in the **sanctuary**. The word “sanctuary” means “sacred place”. People were not allowed to be arrested in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the east end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church “faces east”.
- Churches will also have a **tower** or steeple, usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept.
In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.
Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called **pews**. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the **pulpit** where the priest preaches (these talks are called “sermons”). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read.
If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the **triforium**. Over the triforium is the **clerestory** which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.
The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like “rude”) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there.
Inside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called **choir stalls**. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called “cantoris” (the side where the “cantor” sits) and those on the right (south side) are called “decani” (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called **misericords** (from the Latin word for “mercy”). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.
Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called **squints**. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an **aumbry**. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.
The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an **apse**. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the “Lady Chapel”.
## Churches through the ages
The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries.
### English churches
In English churches there were several different periods of architecture:
- The Saxon period (700–1050) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of wood.
- The Norman period (1050–1190) came from the style called Romanesque which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called “mouldings”. The tops of the pillars looked like cushions, so they were called “cushion capitals”. The windows were narrow and rounded at the top.
- Early English or Gothic architecture (1190–1280) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of Salisbury Cathedral.
- The Decorated style of architecture (1280–1360)was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. For that reason, not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time.
- The Perpendicular style (1360–1540) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting. This can be seen in Westminster Abbey and King's College Chapel, Cambridge. Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period.
In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.
Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building.
## Related pages
- Cathedral
- Chapel
- Choir (music)
## References
- Encyclopædia Britannica, 1973
## Other websites
- Virtual Church
|
medium
| false
| false
|
144
|
City
|
A **city** is a place where many people live close together.
A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, [hotel](19364)s, [condominium](413806)s, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.
## Definition
No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town."
Some things that make a city are :
- A long [history](324). Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, [Athens](111163), Greece was founded in 1000 BC and [Rome](2875), [Italy](363) has existed since 700 BC.
- A large [population](4037). Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are [Tokyo](4329), [Japan](403), and the [Tokyo Metropolis](393582) around it, which includes [Yokohama](6774) and [Chiba](267460).
- In Japan, the population of a city ( 市 ) is at least over 50,000 people. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs.
- A center where [business](6642) and [government](312) takes place. The first case is often described as the [financial capital](276), such as [Frankfurt](19200) in [Germany](219828). The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger [region](14436) (for example, [Atlanta](5031), [Georgia](4951), or the capital of the United States [Washington, D.C.](7172)) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital.
- Special powers called [town privileges](59642) which have been given by the government of the [country](121) or its [ruler](35670). [Europe](216) during the [Middle Ages](6593) was a great example of having town privileges.
- Having a [cathedral](5579) or a [university](884). This rule is found in the [United Kingdom](856). The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in [Wales](3048), [Ripon](75985) and [Wells](5598) which are in [England](3047).
In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities )
## Size of cities
The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.
Cities that were on a river like [London](460) could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like [Siena](33590) in [Italy](363), because the river made a [transport](3794) route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Siena, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.
Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines.
### U.S.A. usage
In the US, the word "city" is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named "city" to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, [Salt Lake City](5257) was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake). Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city.
[Los Angeles](3015), which sounds like a single city, is really made of a number of cities which over the years have become amalgamated. It now covers a huge area which goes by the name of Los Angeles. The city is governed by a Common Council only since 1948.
### Growth of cities
In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a "[metropolis](167568)" and usually includes several ancient small towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, [Westminster](65791), and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the "[City of London](3299)" only takes up one [square mile](19316). The rest is known as "Greater London". Many other cities have grown in the same way. In general speech, it is all a city. But, confusingly, that includes the City of London.
Modern cities have many problems. Not everyone has jobs in the cities and they often get [money](479) by begging or by [crime](151). Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of [pollution](7638) that makes people sick. Roads are crowded and traffic is slow. The cause of all this is [population growth](285726).
Historically, a big problem with cities was the water supply, which periodically got contaminated. That was fixed by an extraordinary man, [Joseph Bazalgette](833421). He was the first man to solve this problem, which had plagued mankind since at least [Roman](664) times. There are parts of the world where his ideas are still not understood.
## Urban history
Urban history is history of [civilization](16146). The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilizations. The oldest city on Earth is probably Catal Huyuk, which existed from 7500 to 6500BC. Famous ancient cities which fell to [ruins](91915) included [Babylon](33724), [Troy](121250), [Mycenae](232032) and [Mohenjo-daro](120832).
Benares in northern [India](391) is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are [Athens](111163) in [Greece](2133), [Rome](2875) and [Volterra](86012) in [Italy](363), [Alexandria](11074) in [Egypt](248).
In [Europe](216) in the [Middle Ages](6593), being a city was a special privilege, granted by [nobility](48728). Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. This shows that security was one pf the problems of a city. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include [Carcassonne](55437) in [France](291), [Tehran](17332)<nowiki/>in [Iran](3772), [Toledo](11582) in [Spain](219832), and [York](7342) and [Canterbury](9645) in [England](3047).
### Infrastructure
People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or [energy](101712). People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have [infrastructure](63311) to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry [electricity](7163). [Sewer](31930)s take away the dirty water and human waste (see [Bazelguette](833421)). Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.
[Transport](3794) is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, [motorcycle](13587)s, bicycles, and [pedestrian](52097)s (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have [airport](3610)s. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called [commuting](42654).
### Buildings and design
Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in [slum](55155)s. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.
City streets can be shaped like a [grid](499244), or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called [urban planning](410411). One area of the city might have only [shop](19446)s, and another area might have only [factories](14624). Cities have [park](21945)s, and other public areas like [city squares](175190).
## United States politics
Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be [New York](566), New York, and [Washington, D.C.](7172) For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :
1. Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta.
1. New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district.
1. Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City.
1. Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas.
1. Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district.
1. Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana.
1. Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district.
## World's largest cities
These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities:
- [Tokyo](4329), [Japan](403) - 37 million
- [Delhi](22106), [India](391) - 29 million
- [Shanghai](7420), [China](120) - 26 million
- [São Paulo](7605), [Brazil](104) - 22 million
- [Mexico City](11185), [Mexico](1935) - 22 million
- [Cairo](10985), [Egypt](248) - 20 million
- [Mumbai](5114), India - 20 million
- [Beijing](89), China - 20 million
- [Dhaka](18438), [Bangladesh](15790) - 20 million
- [Osaka](6684), Japan - 19 million
- [New York](566), [United States](219587) - 19 million
- [Karachi](23654), [Pakistan](5071) - 15 million
- [Buenos Aires](10745), [Argentina](54) - 15 million
- [Chongqing](36600), China - 15 million
- [Istanbul](9307), [Turkey](2860) - 15 million
- [Kolkata](4062), India - 15 million
- [Manila](11134), [Philippines](5103) - 13 million
- [Lagos](18190), [Nigeria](34325) - 13 million
- [Rio de Janeiro](7805), Brazil - 13 million
- [Tianjin](223601), China - 13 million
- [Kinshasa](23632), [DR Congo](34328) - 13 million
- [Guangzhou](317193), China - 13 million
- [Los Angeles](3015), United States - 12 million
- [Moscow](2965), [Russia](2964) - 12 million
- [Shenzhen](223604), China - 12 million
- [Lahore](75022), Pakistan - 12 million
- [Bangalore](5115), India - 11 million
- [Paris](4467), [France](291) - 11 million
- [Bogotá](18032), [Colombia](6351) - 11 million
- [Jakarta](13023), [Indonesia](3334) - 11 million
- [Chennai](5113), India - 10 million
- [Lima](17813), [Peru](2915) - 10 million
- [Bangkok](9114), [Thailand](10138) - 10 million
|
A **city** is a place where many people live close together.
A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.
## Definition
No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town."
Some things that make a city are :
- A long history. Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC.
- A large population. Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba.
- In Japan, the population of a city ( 市 ) is at least over 50,000 people. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs.
- A center where business and government takes place. The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany. The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital.
- Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler. Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges.
- Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England.
In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities )
## Size of cities
The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.
Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Siena in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Siena, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.
Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines.
### U.S.A. usage
In the US, the word "city" is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named "city" to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake). Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city.
Los Angeles, which sounds like a single city, is really made of a number of cities which over the years have become amalgamated. It now covers a huge area which goes by the name of Los Angeles. The city is governed by a Common Council only since 1948.
### Growth of cities
In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a "metropolis" and usually includes several ancient small towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the "City of London" only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as "Greater London". Many other cities have grown in the same way. In general speech, it is all a city. But, confusingly, that includes the City of London.
Modern cities have many problems. Not everyone has jobs in the cities and they often get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick. Roads are crowded and traffic is slow. The cause of all this is population growth.
Historically, a big problem with cities was the water supply, which periodically got contaminated. That was fixed by an extraordinary man, Joseph Bazalgette. He was the first man to solve this problem, which had plagued mankind since at least Roman times. There are parts of the world where his ideas are still not understood.
## Urban history
Urban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilizations. The oldest city on Earth is probably Catal Huyuk, which existed from 7500 to 6500BC. Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro.
Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt.
In Europe in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. This shows that security was one pf the problems of a city. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran<nowiki/>in Iran, Toledo in Spain, and York and Canterbury in England.
### Infrastructure
People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste (see Bazelguette). Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.
Transport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting.
### Buildings and design
Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.
City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares.
## United States politics
Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :
1. Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta.
1. New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district.
1. Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City.
1. Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas.
1. Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district.
1. Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana.
1. Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district.
## World's largest cities
These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities:
- Tokyo, Japan - 37 million
- Delhi, India - 29 million
- Shanghai, China - 26 million
- São Paulo, Brazil - 22 million
- Mexico City, Mexico - 22 million
- Cairo, Egypt - 20 million
- Mumbai, India - 20 million
- Beijing, China - 20 million
- Dhaka, Bangladesh - 20 million
- Osaka, Japan - 19 million
- New York, United States - 19 million
- Karachi, Pakistan - 15 million
- Buenos Aires, Argentina - 15 million
- Chongqing, China - 15 million
- Istanbul, Turkey - 15 million
- Kolkata, India - 15 million
- Manila, Philippines - 13 million
- Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million
- Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 13 million
- Tianjin, China - 13 million
- Kinshasa, DR Congo - 13 million
- Guangzhou, China - 13 million
- Los Angeles, United States - 12 million
- Moscow, Russia - 12 million
- Shenzhen, China - 12 million
- Lahore, Pakistan - 12 million
- Bangalore, India - 11 million
- Paris, France - 11 million
- Bogotá, Colombia - 11 million
- Jakarta, Indonesia - 11 million
- Chennai, India - 10 million
- Lima, Peru - 10 million
- Bangkok, Thailand - 10 million
|
high
| false
| false
|
146
|
Cooking
|
**Cooking** is a process to make [food](280) ready to eat by [heat](5761)ing it.
## Methods
Cooking is often done in a [kitchen](7430) using a [stove](299707) or an [oven](7868). It can also be done over a [fire](9476) (for example, over a [campfire](31568) or on a [barbecue](36265)).
The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open [fire](9476) that burns [wood](6103) or [charcoal](63044). It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses [propane](23697), [natural gas](4114), or [electricity](7163).
There are several different ways to cook food. [Boiling](53680) cooks food in hot water. [Frying](284) (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot [butter](1943), [fat](19532) or [oil](578). [Baking](233421) and [roasting](19821) cook food by surrounding it with hot air. [Grilling](40643) means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.
People often cook [meat](4646) by boiling, [roasting](19821), [frying](284), or grilling it. Some foods such as [bread](4475) or pastries are usually [baked](233421).
Usually food is cooked in some kind of [pot](7869) or [pan](181324). Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.
## Cooks
A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a _cook_ or a _[chef](79445)_. The word _cooker_ means a [machine](7240) or [tool](158772) that a cook might use to cook food. [Rice](5437) cookers and [pressure cooker](31617)s are examples.
|
**Cooking** is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it.
## Methods
Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).
The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.
There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.
People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.
Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan. Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.
## Cooks
A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a _cook_ or a _chef_. The word _cooker_ means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples.
|
high
| false
| false
|
148
|
Chat
|
To **chat** is to **talk** about ordinary things that are not usually very important. However, important issues can also classify as “chat”, for instance when organising gatherings, meetings or events, such as air show attendance. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the [Internet](362) where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a [chat room](13456) or [messaging](21656) service like [AOL Instant Messenger](21661) (AIM), [Yahoo Messenger](3591) [Windows Live Messenger](37365) or [Tencent QQ](105648). There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as [Pidgin](118232).
Online Chat is real time, text-based, digital communication between two or more parties.
## Related pages
- [Internet Relay Chat](16377) (IRC)
- [Conversation](67925)
|
To **chat** is to **talk** about ordinary things that are not usually very important. However, important issues can also classify as “chat”, for instance when organising gatherings, meetings or events, such as air show attendance. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.
Online Chat is real time, text-based, digital communication between two or more parties.
## Related pages
- Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
- Conversation
|
medium
| false
| false
|
149
|
Cup
|
A **cup** is any kind of [container](1988) used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:
1. [teacup](402465)
1. [paper cup](325577)
**Cup** may also mean:
1. [Measuring cup](117017), a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
1. [Cup (unit)](809797), a customary unit of volume and measure
1. [Cancer of unknown primary origin](536385), form of [cancer](5001)
1. The cup of a [brassière](21368), the part that covers the breasts
1. A cup-shaped [trophy](77103) or award for winning in a sport
|
A **cup** is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:
1. teacup
1. paper cup
**Cup** may also mean:
1. Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
1. Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure
1. Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer
1. The cup of a brassière, the part that covers the breasts
1. A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport
|
high
| false
| false
|
151
|
Crime
|
A **crime** (or **misdemeanor** or **felony**) is an act done by a person which is against the [law](426)s of a [country](121) or region. A person who does this is called a **criminal.**
The basic idea of what things are called "crimes" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like killing another person, [injuring](13712) another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries. Also, it can be a crime to have or sell [contraband](527915) such as [guns](291503) or illegal drugs. The latter two often fall under the category of [victimless crime](916370)
When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the [police](642) finding out where the money came from by [money laundering](10593). Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls.
## Etymology
The word _crime_ is derived from the Latin root _cernō_, meaning "I decide, I give judgment". Originally the Latin word _crīmen_ meant "charge" or "cry of distress." The Ancient Greek word κρίμα, _krima_, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong.[https://www.amazon.com/Comprehensive-Etymological-Dictionary-English-Language/dp/0444409300](https://www.amazon.com/Comprehensive-Etymological-Dictionary-English-Language/dp/0444409300)
In 13th century English _crime_ meant "sinfulness", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary. It was probably brought to England as Old French _crimne_ (12th century form of Modern French _crime_), from Latin _crimen_ (in the genitive case: _criminis_). In Latin, _crimen_ could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense".
### England and Wales
Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings.
### Scotland
For the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for the commission of which the offender is liable under the statute making the offence punishable to be imprisoned either absolutely or at the discretion of the court as an alternative for some other punishment.
### Sociology
A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms – cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally.
## Levels of crime
There are various levels of crimes. In some [jurisdiction](47246)s they are:
- **misdemeanor** - a minor crime, typically punished by a fee or less than 1 year in [jail](1932).
- **felony** (or **high crime**) - a major crime, typically punished by 1 year or longer in [prison](1934).
Different countries have different ideas of what things are crimes, and which ones are the worst. Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries. Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from [religion](653)s or controversial events which cause a law to be quickly created. For example, a religious [Taboo](26394) might say eating a particular food is a crime. When [automobile](214943)s became numerous, they killed or hurt many people in road accidents, so new laws were made for them.
In many countries, if people say they made or wrote a [book](3686), [movie](3486), [song](9460), or Web page that they did not really make or write, it is a crime against [copyright](1586) laws. In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell illegal drugs is a crime.
In most countries, [police](642) try to stop crimes and to find criminals. When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a [jail](1932). Then, usually, a [court](7636) or a [judge](7952) decides if the person really did a crime. If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a [fine](283) or go to [prison](1934). Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be executed (killed). This is called Capital punishment (or the _Death Penalty_). There are countries in the world that execute criminals, and others that do not.
In many countries, two conditions must exist for an act to be thought of as a crime:
- _Actus rea_ - the criminal did something against the law
- _Mens rea_ - the criminal knew what they were doing was against the law and did it anyways, or they knew they were doing something that could accidentally end up being against the law and didn't care
Both must be present for the act to be thought of as a crime.
|
A **crime** (or **misdemeanor** or **felony**) is an act done by a person which is against the laws of a country or region. A person who does this is called a **criminal.**
The basic idea of what things are called "crimes" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like killing another person, injuring another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries. Also, it can be a crime to have or sell contraband such as guns or illegal drugs. The latter two often fall under the category of victimless crime
When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by money laundering. Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls.
## Etymology
The word _crime_ is derived from the Latin root _cernō_, meaning "I decide, I give judgment". Originally the Latin word _crīmen_ meant "charge" or "cry of distress." The Ancient Greek word κρίμα, _krima_, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong.https://www.amazon.com/Comprehensive-Etymological-Dictionary-English-Language/dp/0444409300
In 13th century English _crime_ meant "sinfulness", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary. It was probably brought to England as Old French _crimne_ (12th century form of Modern French _crime_), from Latin _crimen_ (in the genitive case: _criminis_). In Latin, _crimen_ could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense".
### England and Wales
Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings.
### Scotland
For the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for the commission of which the offender is liable under the statute making the offence punishable to be imprisoned either absolutely or at the discretion of the court as an alternative for some other punishment.
### Sociology
A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms – cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally.
## Levels of crime
There are various levels of crimes. In some jurisdictions they are:
- **misdemeanor** - a minor crime, typically punished by a fee or less than 1 year in jail.
- **felony** (or **high crime**) - a major crime, typically punished by 1 year or longer in prison.
Different countries have different ideas of what things are crimes, and which ones are the worst. Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries. Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from religions or controversial events which cause a law to be quickly created. For example, a religious Taboo might say eating a particular food is a crime. When automobiles became numerous, they killed or hurt many people in road accidents, so new laws were made for them.
In many countries, if people say they made or wrote a book, movie, song, or Web page that they did not really make or write, it is a crime against copyright laws. In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell illegal drugs is a crime.
In most countries, police try to stop crimes and to find criminals. When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a jail. Then, usually, a court or a judge decides if the person really did a crime. If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a fine or go to prison. Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be executed (killed). This is called Capital punishment (or the _Death Penalty_). There are countries in the world that execute criminals, and others that do not.
In many countries, two conditions must exist for an act to be thought of as a crime:
- _Actus rea_ - the criminal did something against the law
- _Mens rea_ - the criminal knew what they were doing was against the law and did it anyways, or they knew they were doing something that could accidentally end up being against the law and didn't care
Both must be present for the act to be thought of as a crime.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
153
|
Time Cube
|
**Time Cube** was a personal [website](908) created in 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his [theory of everything](226544), known as "Time Cube". It described the planet [Earth](219) as having a [cubic](180) [symmetry](40839), and [time](3219) as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern [physics](591) is wrong. [Scientists](748) reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.
On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of his comments were [racist](130911) and [discriminatory](28488) towards [black people](102412), [Jews](219593), and [gay](7692) people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.
Ray spoke about Time Cube at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](67684) (MIT) in January 2002. At MIT, a [professor](3007) tried to cancel the lecture before it happened. Ray believed this was proof of a [conspiracy](256781) to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the [Georgia Institute of Technology](45320) in April 2005.
Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. His website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the [Wayback Machine](620993) on January 12, 2016.
## Related pages
- [Conspiracy theory](147811)
- [Pseudoscience](18990)
## Infobox (website)
- **name**: Time Cube
- **screenshot**: Time Cube.png
- **caption**: A picture showing the Time Cube theory
- **url**: timecube.com until August 2015
Archived at web.archive.org
- **commercial**: No
- **type**: Personal website
- **author**: Otis Eugene Ray
|
**Time Cube** was a personal website created in 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.
On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of his comments were racist and discriminatory towards black people, Jews, and gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.
Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it happened. Ray believed this was proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005.
Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. His website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016.
## Related pages
- Conspiracy theory
- Pseudoscience
## Infobox (website)
- **name**: Time Cube
- **screenshot**: Time Cube.png
- **caption**: A picture showing the Time Cube theory
- **url**: timecube.com until August 2015
Archived at web.archive.org
- **commercial**: No
- **type**: Personal website
- **author**: Otis Eugene Ray
|
low
| false
| false
|
156
|
Census of Marine Life
|
The **Census of Marine Life** was a ten-year survey of [life](425) in the [ocean](103595)s, starting in [2000](4022). Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 [nation](3328)s were involved and over a [billion](467299) [US dollars](2684) were spent on it.
It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by [J. Frederick Grassle](648187).
The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans.
## Other websites
- [Census of Marine Life website](http://www.coml.org/)
|
The **Census of Marine Life** was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.
It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.
The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans.
## Other websites
- Census of Marine Life website
|
low
| false
| false
|
158
|
Maize
|
**Maize** or **Indian corn** (called **corn** in some countries) is _Zea mays_, a member of the [grass](19907) [family](34890) _Poaceae_. It is a [cereal](855580) [grain](4772) which was first grown by people in ancient [Central America](3596). Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn [ethanol](21979), animal feed and other maize products, such as [corn starch](434508) and [corn syrup](430751).
Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a [staple food](191530) by many people in [Mexico](1935), Central and [South America](1989) and parts of [Africa](1942). In [Europe](216) and the rest of [North America](557), maize is grown mostly for use as [animal](62) feed. In [Canada](219589) and the [United States](219587), maize is commonly referred to as "corn".
Centuries of [cross breeding](445096) have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of [corn starch](434508). People have long eaten [sweet corn](253242) and [popcorn](79901) with little [processing](90484), and other kinds after processing into [flour](47142) for making [cornbread](61041), [tortilla](10933)s, and other artificial foods.
Maize has been a fruitful [model organism](284145) for research in [genetics](9424) for many years: see [Barbara McClintock](291287). Research has shown that [artificial selection](137607) developed maize from a Mexican plant called [Teosinte](172326).
## The genus _Zea_
There are five [species](19654) and many [subspecies](107026) in the [genus](21683). They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called [teosinte](172326)s, and they are all native to [Mesoamerica](29352).
|
**Maize** or **Indian corn** (called **corn** in some countries) is _Zea mays_, a member of the grass family _Poaceae_. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.
Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn".
Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.
Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.
## The genus _Zea_
There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
159
|
Civics
|
**Civics** is the study of [government](312). It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called [political science](100355). Since a [city](144) has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.
Theories of civics can be grouped as:
- Anarchist
- Capitalist
- Democrat
- Green
- Libertarian
- Republican
It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic
|
**Civics** is the study of government. It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called political science. Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.
Theories of civics can be grouped as:
- Anarchist
- Capitalist
- Democrat
- Green
- Libertarian
- Republican
It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic
|
high
| false
| false
|
161
|
Calculus
|
**Calculus** is a branch of [mathematics](467) that describes [continuous change](228051).
There are two different types of calculus. **Differential calculus** divides (_differentiates_) things into small (_different_) pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while **integral calculus** joins (_integrates_) the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes. Calculus is used in many different sciences such as [physics](591), [astronomy](48), [biology](101), [engineering](2816), [economics](246), [medicine](3793) and [sociology](2002).
## History
In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir [Isaac Newton](5123) in England and [Gottfried Leibniz](42170) in [Germany](219828) figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see [planets](639) in the sky, because [astronomy](48) had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for [navigation](24154) of ships. Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a [curve](41451) (a line that is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz. Most [mathematicians](14844) today agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in [physics](591). Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it.
They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world — [Aristotle](4494) and [Pythagoras](5127) came earlier, and so did [Galileo Galilei](4052), who said that mathematics was the language of science. But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future.
The name "calculus" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient [Romans](664) used in counting and [gambling](3997). The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word.
## Differential calculus
**Differential calculus** is used to find the rate of change of a [variable](8460)—compared to another variable.
Variables can change their value. This is different from numbers because numbers are always the same. For example, the number 1 is always equal to 1, and the number 200 is always equal to 200. One often writes variables as letters such as the letter x: "x" can be equal to 1 at one point and 200 at another.
Some examples of variables are [distance](203) and [time](3219), because they can change. The [speed](791) of an object is how far it travels in a particular time. So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have traveled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour. But this is only an [average](33956): they travelled faster at some times (say on a highway), and slower at other times (say at a traffic light or on a small street where people live). Certainly it is more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clock—without a speedometer.
Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time. This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out.
Differential calculus is also useful for graphing. A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a [curve](41451). The slope of a _[straight](16267)_ line is easy to work out — it is simply how much it goes up or down (_y_ or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (_x_ or horizontal). On a _curve_, however, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends. But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line. So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point. If this is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a [tangent](101269). But there is no way to know (without complex mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close.
What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an [infinite](395) number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the range they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope _approached_ a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. The particular value it approached was the actual slope.
Given a function . _f_ is short for [function](15006), so this [equation](8335) means "y is a function of x". This tells us that how high y is on the [vertical](116662) axis depends on what x (the [horizontal](45477) axis) is at that time. For example, with the equation , we know that if is 1, then will be 1; if is 3, then will be 9; if **' is 20, then **' will be 400. The slope of the tangent line produced [using this method](14949) here is , or 2 multiplied by **'. So we know without having to draw any tangent line at any point on the curve that the **[derivative](242760),** often written as (marked with the prime symbol), will be at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called **differentiation**, or finding the derivative.
The way to write the derivative in mathematics is
Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "", which means "with respect to x". He called the resulting change in "", which means "a tiny amount of y". Leibniz's notation is used by more books, because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation:
.
Mathematicians have grown this basic theory to make simple [algebra](45) rules—which can be used to find the derivative of almost any function.
In the real world, calculus can be used to find the speed of a moving object, or to understand how [electricity](7163) and [magnetism](21488) work. It is very important for understanding [physics](591)—and many other areas of science.
## Integral calculus
**Integral calculus_' is the process of calculating the [area](3926) underneath a graph of a function. An example is calculating the distance a car travels: if one knows the speed of the car at different points in time and draw a graph of this speed, then the distance the car travels will be the area under the graph.
The way to do this is to divide the graph into many very small pieces, and then draw very thin rectangles under each piece. As the rectangles become thinner and thinner, the rectangles cover the area underneath the graph better and better. The area of a rectangle is easy to calculate, so we can calculate the total area of all the rectangles. For thinner rectangles, this total area value _approaches_ the area underneath the graph. The final value of the area is called the _integral_ of the function.
In mathematics, the integral of the function _f(x)_ from _a_ to _b_, is written as
.
## Main idea of calculus
The main idea in calculus is called the [fundamental theorem of calculus](261024). This main idea says that the two calculus processes, differentiation and integration, are inverses of each other. That is, a person can use differentiation to undo an integration process. Also, a person can use integration to undo a differentiation. This is just like using division to "undo" [multiplication](482), or addition to "undo" subtraction.
In a single sentence, the fundamental theorem runs something like this: "The derivative of the integral of a function _f'' is the function itself".
## Applications of calculus
Calculus is used to describe things that change, like things in [nature](547). It can be used for showing and learning all of these:
- How [wave](3285)s move. Waves are very important in the natural world. For example, [sound](686) and [light](3987) can be thought of as waves.
- Where [heat](5761) moves, like in a house. This is useful for [architecture](49) (building houses), so that the house can be as cheap to heat as possible.
- How very small things like atoms act.
- How fast something will fall, also known as [gravity](2901).
- How [machine](7240)s work, also known as [mechanics](48899).
- The [path](6251) of the [moon](107799) as it moves around the [earth](219). Also, the path of the earth as it moves around the [sun](44408), and any [planet](639) or [moon](107799) moving around anything in [space](2899).
## Related pages
- [Calculus of variations](435103)
- [Derivative (mathematics)](242760)
- [Difference quotient](352113)
- [Mathematical analysis](23470)
- [Multivariable calculus](303049)
- [Vector calculus](303047)
|
**Calculus** is a branch of mathematics that describes continuous change.
There are two different types of calculus. **Differential calculus** divides (_differentiates_) things into small (_different_) pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while **integral calculus** joins (_integrates_) the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes. Calculus is used in many different sciences such as physics, astronomy, biology, engineering, economics, medicine and sociology.
## History
In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir Isaac Newton in England and Gottfried Leibniz in Germany figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see planets in the sky, because astronomy had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for navigation of ships. Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a curve (a line that is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz. Most mathematicians today agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in physics. Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it.
They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world — Aristotle and Pythagoras came earlier, and so did Galileo Galilei, who said that mathematics was the language of science. But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future.
The name "calculus" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient Romans used in counting and gambling. The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word.
## Differential calculus
**Differential calculus** is used to find the rate of change of a variable—compared to another variable.
Variables can change their value. This is different from numbers because numbers are always the same. For example, the number 1 is always equal to 1, and the number 200 is always equal to 200. One often writes variables as letters such as the letter x: "x" can be equal to 1 at one point and 200 at another.
Some examples of variables are distance and time, because they can change. The speed of an object is how far it travels in a particular time. So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have traveled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour. But this is only an average: they travelled faster at some times (say on a highway), and slower at other times (say at a traffic light or on a small street where people live). Certainly it is more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clock—without a speedometer.
Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time. This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out.
Differential calculus is also useful for graphing. A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a curve. The slope of a _straight_ line is easy to work out — it is simply how much it goes up or down (_y_ or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (_x_ or horizontal). On a _curve_, however, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends. But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line. So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point. If this is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a tangent. But there is no way to know (without complex mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close.
What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an infinite number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the range they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope _approached_ a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. The particular value it approached was the actual slope.
Given a function . _f_ is short for function, so this equation means "y is a function of x". This tells us that how high y is on the vertical axis depends on what x (the horizontal axis) is at that time. For example, with the equation , we know that if is 1, then will be 1; if is 3, then will be 9; if **' is 20, then **' will be 400. The slope of the tangent line produced using this method here is , or 2 multiplied by **'. So we know without having to draw any tangent line at any point on the curve that the **derivative,** often written as (marked with the prime symbol), will be at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called **differentiation**, or finding the derivative.
The way to write the derivative in mathematics is
Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "", which means "with respect to x". He called the resulting change in "", which means "a tiny amount of y". Leibniz's notation is used by more books, because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation:
.
Mathematicians have grown this basic theory to make simple algebra rules—which can be used to find the derivative of almost any function.
In the real world, calculus can be used to find the speed of a moving object, or to understand how electricity and magnetism work. It is very important for understanding physics—and many other areas of science.
## Integral calculus
**Integral calculus_' is the process of calculating the area underneath a graph of a function. An example is calculating the distance a car travels: if one knows the speed of the car at different points in time and draw a graph of this speed, then the distance the car travels will be the area under the graph.
The way to do this is to divide the graph into many very small pieces, and then draw very thin rectangles under each piece. As the rectangles become thinner and thinner, the rectangles cover the area underneath the graph better and better. The area of a rectangle is easy to calculate, so we can calculate the total area of all the rectangles. For thinner rectangles, this total area value _approaches_ the area underneath the graph. The final value of the area is called the _integral_ of the function.
In mathematics, the integral of the function _f(x)_ from _a_ to _b_, is written as
.
## Main idea of calculus
The main idea in calculus is called the fundamental theorem of calculus. This main idea says that the two calculus processes, differentiation and integration, are inverses of each other. That is, a person can use differentiation to undo an integration process. Also, a person can use integration to undo a differentiation. This is just like using division to "undo" multiplication, or addition to "undo" subtraction.
In a single sentence, the fundamental theorem runs something like this: "The derivative of the integral of a function _f'' is the function itself".
## Applications of calculus
Calculus is used to describe things that change, like things in nature. It can be used for showing and learning all of these:
- How waves move. Waves are very important in the natural world. For example, sound and light can be thought of as waves.
- Where heat moves, like in a house. This is useful for architecture (building houses), so that the house can be as cheap to heat as possible.
- How very small things like atoms act.
- How fast something will fall, also known as gravity.
- How machines work, also known as mechanics.
- The path of the moon as it moves around the earth. Also, the path of the earth as it moves around the sun, and any planet or moon moving around anything in space.
## Related pages
- Calculus of variations
- Derivative (mathematics)
- Difference quotient
- Mathematical analysis
- Multivariable calculus
- Vector calculus
|
medium
| false
| false
|
162
|
Coin
|
A **coin** is a piece of metal that is used as [currency](2140), or money. The earliest coins were in [Lydia](653226), in what is [Turkey](2860) today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from [electrum](935664), an [alloy](4362) found in riverbeds.
Most people use coins as [currency](2140). They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government [mints](566393).
## Appearance
Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's [head](3459) on it.
The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things [random](14534)ly. This is called "tossing a coin". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of [gambling](3997), which is illegal (against the law) in some [countries](121).
## Collecting
Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like [copper](6709). Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.
|
A **coin** is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds.
Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.
## Appearance
Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it.
The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.
## Collecting
Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.
|
high
| false
| false
|
164
|
Conceptual metaphor
|
A **conceptual metaphor** or **cognitive metaphor** is a [metaphor](510) which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating [quantity](3543) in terms of [direction](5547):
1. _Prices are rising_.
1. _I attacked every weak point in his argument_. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
1. _Life is a journey_.
1. _Love_ talked about as if it were _war_ or _competition_.
1. _Time_ talked about as if it were a _path through space_, or a _quantity_ that can be saved or spent or wasted.
The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: _Metaphors we live by_.
- "The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.
## Political metaphors
- **eminence grise**: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
- **figurehead**: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
- **puppet government**: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
- **star chamber**: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
- **character assassination**: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
- **landslide victory**: a huge victory for one side.
- **riding coattails**: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
- **grassroots**: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
- **astroturfing**: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
- **[straw man](379304)**: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
- **spin** (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
- **witch-hunt**: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
- **bread and circuses**: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.
There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.
|
A **conceptual metaphor** or **cognitive metaphor** is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
1. _Prices are rising_.
1. _I attacked every weak point in his argument_. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
1. _Life is a journey_.
1. _Love_ talked about as if it were _war_ or _competition_.
1. _Time_ talked about as if it were a _path through space_, or a _quantity_ that can be saved or spent or wasted.
The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: _Metaphors we live by_.
- "The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.
## Political metaphors
- **eminence grise**: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
- **figurehead**: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
- **puppet government**: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
- **star chamber**: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
- **character assassination**: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
- **landslide victory**: a huge victory for one side.
- **riding coattails**: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
- **grassroots**: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
- **astroturfing**: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
- **straw man**: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
- **spin** (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
- **witch-hunt**: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
- **bread and circuses**: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.
There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
166
|
Crust
|
**Crust** is a piece of [bread](4475) where the edge where it is harder and darker.
Crust can also mean:
- Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also.
- On Earth the crust can be divided into:
- [continental crust](77166) on which the land of the planet Earth sits
- [oceanic crust](77165) which forms most of the ocean floor
|
**Crust** is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker.
Crust can also mean:
- Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also.
- On Earth the crust can be divided into:
- continental crust on which the land of the planet Earth sits
- oceanic crust which forms most of the ocean floor
|
medium
| false
| false
|
167
|
Comedy
|
**Comedy** (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content. It is able to make people laugh. This definition was used for [theatre](819) [plays](6257), and was first used in Ancient Greece. Aristotle defined this as “Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.” To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy.
Comedy is also a media genre that is for [television](1999) shows or [movie](3486)s that are either funny or silly. People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as [comedian](11259)s or comedic actors.
### Satire
The ancient Greeks had comedies, which were presented in [competition](33042)s at the [festival](43661) of [Dionysia](37994).
One of the best-known comedy authors of the time was [Aristophanes](27295) (about 446386 BC). One of his works, _The Clouds_ was performed 425 BC. The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive. It is a satire against [Socrates](5128), and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist. Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' [trial](43564), twenty years later.
Typical for satire are that the author criticizes society, and living people.
### Satyr plays
Another type of Ancient Greek theatre was the [satyr play](30939). This was mock [drunkenness](8446), brazen sexuality (including [phallic](123168) props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy.
### Humour
Humour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations. The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably [Menander](826244). The best known [Roman](24298) comedy writer was [Plautus](61535). He often used Greek comedies for his plays.
Many comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer [William Shakespeare](354103).
Shakespeare's comedy plays include:_ All’s Well That Ends Well, [The Comedy of Errors](27233), A Midsummer Nights Dream_, and _[Twelfth Night](176564)_. In Shakespeare's day a comedy did not mean a play that would make people laugh or that had a lot of jokes. Instead it was a play in which all the problems work out all right in the end. This was unlike a tragedy, where the problems do not work out, usually resulting in someone's death.
The two masks, one was smiling, the other crying, often associated with theatre represent comedy and tragedy.
### Slapstick
There are different types of comedy. One type of comedy is called "slap stick comedy." In "slap stick comedy," people do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows.
Slap stick comedy was used a lot in silent (no sound) movies from the 1920s. A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was [Charlie Chaplin](37717). In the 1950s and 1960s, comedian [Jerry Lewis](48601) also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies.
### Comedy movies
A comedy is a very popular type of movie. Some comedy movies have "slapstick comedy," in which people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Other comedy movies show funny stories or situations in which people are behaving in a silly manner. Some comedies make the audience laugh by showing strange or unusual images or situations that do not make sense.
### Offensive Comedy
a genre of comedy that existed before the rise of "political correctness" generally racist and discriminatory against minorities but can be used as a way to offend those who offend others this is known as "Reverse Racism". an example of this is calling a white person a "honky" or "white trash" these terms are offensive to white people which is racist but if used against a person who calls someone another terminology, as a way of keeping ones honour.
### Parody/Spoof
A parody or spoof movie imitates or exaggerates another person or movie to make them seem silly, dumb, or just plain out of it.
### Different types of comedy movies
Some types of comedy movies mix comedy with other types of movies.
- There is a type of movie called a **dramedy**, which is a mix of a drama movie and a comedy movie.
- There is also a type of movie called a **romantic comedy** (sometimes called a "rom-com"). In romantic comedies, there is a love story about a couple who fall in love, along with silly or funny comedy parts.
### Comedy television shows
Comedy shows are very popular on [television](1999). Comedy shows on television are often called "sitcoms." The word "sitcom" is a shortened way of saying "situational comedy." Television situational comedies usually show characters who do silly or funny things which make the audience laugh.
## Related pages
- [Comedian](11259)
- [Opera buffa](73407)
|
**Comedy** (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content. It is able to make people laugh. This definition was used for theatre plays, and was first used in Ancient Greece. Aristotle defined this as “Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.” To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy.
Comedy is also a media genre that is for television shows or movies that are either funny or silly. People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as comedians or comedic actors.
### Satire
The ancient Greeks had comedies, which were presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia.
One of the best-known comedy authors of the time was Aristophanes (about 446386 BC). One of his works, _The Clouds_ was performed 425 BC. The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive. It is a satire against Socrates, and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist. Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' trial, twenty years later.
Typical for satire are that the author criticizes society, and living people.
### Satyr plays
Another type of Ancient Greek theatre was the satyr play. This was mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy.
### Humour
Humour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations. The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably Menander. The best known Roman comedy writer was Plautus. He often used Greek comedies for his plays.
Many comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer William Shakespeare.
Shakespeare's comedy plays include:_ All’s Well That Ends Well, The Comedy of Errors, A Midsummer Nights Dream_, and _Twelfth Night_. In Shakespeare's day a comedy did not mean a play that would make people laugh or that had a lot of jokes. Instead it was a play in which all the problems work out all right in the end. This was unlike a tragedy, where the problems do not work out, usually resulting in someone's death.
The two masks, one was smiling, the other crying, often associated with theatre represent comedy and tragedy.
### Slapstick
There are different types of comedy. One type of comedy is called "slap stick comedy." In "slap stick comedy," people do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows.
Slap stick comedy was used a lot in silent (no sound) movies from the 1920s. A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was Charlie Chaplin. In the 1950s and 1960s, comedian Jerry Lewis also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies.
### Comedy movies
A comedy is a very popular type of movie. Some comedy movies have "slapstick comedy," in which people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Other comedy movies show funny stories or situations in which people are behaving in a silly manner. Some comedies make the audience laugh by showing strange or unusual images or situations that do not make sense.
### Offensive Comedy
a genre of comedy that existed before the rise of "political correctness" generally racist and discriminatory against minorities but can be used as a way to offend those who offend others this is known as "Reverse Racism". an example of this is calling a white person a "honky" or "white trash" these terms are offensive to white people which is racist but if used against a person who calls someone another terminology, as a way of keeping ones honour.
### Parody/Spoof
A parody or spoof movie imitates or exaggerates another person or movie to make them seem silly, dumb, or just plain out of it.
### Different types of comedy movies
Some types of comedy movies mix comedy with other types of movies.
- There is a type of movie called a **dramedy**, which is a mix of a drama movie and a comedy movie.
- There is also a type of movie called a **romantic comedy** (sometimes called a "rom-com"). In romantic comedies, there is a love story about a couple who fall in love, along with silly or funny comedy parts.
### Comedy television shows
Comedy shows are very popular on television. Comedy shows on television are often called "sitcoms." The word "sitcom" is a shortened way of saying "situational comedy." Television situational comedies usually show characters who do silly or funny things which make the audience laugh.
## Related pages
- Comedian
- Opera buffa
|
medium
| false
| false
|
168
|
Comet
|
A **comet** is a [ball](3541) of mostly [ice](3611) that moves around in [outer space](2899). Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from [asteroid](51)s.
The [orbital inclination](395859)s of comets are usually high and not near the [ecliptic](100297) where most [solar system](800) objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the [Kuiper belt](42219). That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night.
They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the [solar wind](126603).
The hard centre of the comet is the _nucleus_. It is one of the blackest things (lowest [albedo](76367)) in the solar system. When [light](3987) shone on the nucleus of [Halley's Comet](3943), the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.
_Periodic_ comets visit again and again. _Non-periodic_ or _single-apparition_ comets visit only once.
Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in [1994](3960). Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. [Astronomer](4491)s think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.
## Famous comets
- Halley's
- Hale-Bopp
- Shoemaker-Levy 9
- Ikeya Seki
## History of comets
For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the [Bayeux Tapestry](300509) shows the return of [Halley's Comet](3943) and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring [famine](46018). During the [Renaissance](25297), [astronomer](4491)s started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their [science](700) on observations. [Tycho Brahe](33838) reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.
[Edmond Halley](268438) reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, [Halley's Comet](3943), named after him.
[Isaac Newton](5123) also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book _Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica_. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun.
In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially [Jupiter](408).
All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that [hell](4923) was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.
In modern times, [space probe](23126)s have visited comets to learn more about them.
## Related pages
- [List of comets](4417)
## Other websites
- [Are Comets Made of Antimatter?](http://stevechallis.net/Comets.php)
|
A **comet** is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids.
The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night.
They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.
The hard centre of the comet is the _nucleus_. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.
_Periodic_ comets visit again and again. _Non-periodic_ or _single-apparition_ comets visit only once.
Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.
## Famous comets
- Halley's
- Hale-Bopp
- Shoemaker-Levy 9
- Ikeya Seki
## History of comets
For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.
Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.
Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book _Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica_. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun.
In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.
All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.
In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them.
## Related pages
- List of comets
## Other websites
- Are Comets Made of Antimatter?
|
medium
| false
| false
|
169
|
Cytology
|
**Cytology** is the study of the [cell](130418)s, especially their appearance and [structure](21702). Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their [environment](13637).
There are two types of cells. [Prokaryotic](54681) cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see [nucleus](42098), and do not have a [membrane](13529), or wall, around them. [Eukaryotic](21991) cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main [organelle](55780)s of a cell and their uses are:
- [Mitochondria](25812): produces [energy](4115) for the cell
- [Endoplasmic reticulum](205600): makes [protein](636)s and [carbohydrate](119077)s for the cell to use
- Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses
- Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to [photosynthesize](3518) (create energy from sunlight); in plants only.
- [Nucleus](18629): directs the actions of the cell
- [Centrosome](222226)s: guides the cell in [mitosis](42824) and [meiosis](39282), the processes for cell division.
## Related pages
- [Cell biology](186185) is mostly about how cells work, and about [cell division](45844) and [molecular biology](72834).
- [Histology](43191) deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a [microscope](512).
- Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a [microscope](512).
|
**Cytology** is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment.
There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are:
- Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell
- Endoplasmic reticulum: makes proteins and carbohydrates for the cell to use
- Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses
- Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to photosynthesize (create energy from sunlight); in plants only.
- Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell
- Centrosomes: guides the cell in mitosis and meiosis, the processes for cell division.
## Related pages
- Cell biology is mostly about how cells work, and about cell division and molecular biology.
- Histology deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a microscope.
- Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a microscope.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
170
|
Christian
|
A **Christian** () is a [person](502310) who believes in [Christianity](219595), an [Abrahamic](43) [monotheistic](12437) [religion](653). Christianity is mostly about the [life](425) and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the [Bible](2866)'s [New Testament](11265) and interpreted or [prophesied](43853) in the [Hebrew Bible](80262)/[Old Testament](11272). Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world.
## Views of the Bible
Christians consider the Holy Bible to be a [sacred](4779) book, inspired by [God](139026). The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or [Torah](10118), and a collection of writings called the New Testament. Views on the importance of these writings vary. Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament. Others believe the entire Bible is equally important. Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate.
## Who is a Christian?
The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on [spiritual](3952) matters. In countries where most persons were [baptized](25219) in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us".
In this context, religious or [ethnic](234) minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society.
Persons who are more devoted to their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly. They only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church. In some Christian movements (especially [Fundamentalism](91778) and [Evangelicalism](48246)), to be a [**born-again Christian**](117225) is to undergo a ["spiritual rebirth"](391274) by believing in the Bible's teachings about [Jesus](219585) and choosing to follow him.
## Church life
Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of [worship](78094). However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church. Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most [Protestants](9600) believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that their Roman Catholic Church is the only true church.
## Related pages
- [Christianity](219595)
- [Religion](653)
- [Salvation (Christianity)](391274)
|
A **Christian** () is a person who believes in Christianity, an Abrahamic monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the Bible's New Testament and interpreted or prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world.
## Views of the Bible
Christians consider the Holy Bible to be a sacred book, inspired by God. The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or Torah, and a collection of writings called the New Testament. Views on the importance of these writings vary. Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament. Others believe the entire Bible is equally important. Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate.
## Who is a Christian?
The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us".
In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society.
Persons who are more devoted to their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly. They only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church. In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a **born-again Christian** is to undergo a "spiritual rebirth" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him.
## Church life
Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship. However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church. Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that their Roman Catholic Church is the only true church.
## Related pages
- Christianity
- Religion
- Salvation (Christianity)
|
high
| false
| false
|
171
|
Cheese
|
**Cheese** is a [dairy product](19471) that is made from [milk](3398) from many different animals' milk. There are many types of cheese, such as [cheddar](5637), [Swiss](45365), and [provolone](451899).
Many things affect the [form](63408), [texture](58643), color and [flavor](3940) of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or [goat](38207)), if the milk has been [pasteurized](22505), the amount of butterfat, [bacteria](10861) and [mold](47656) in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is.
## Origin
People have been making cheese since before [history](324) was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made, but is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC.
## Classification
There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:
- How long the cheese was aged
- The [texture](58643) of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer.
- How the cheese was made
- how tasty the cheese is.
- What type of [milk](3398) was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what [animal](62) the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk.
- How much [fat](19532) is in the cheese
- What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white)
There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called [Cheese analogue](322477)s.
Different types of cheese include:
|
**Cheese** is a dairy product that is made from milk from many different animals' milk. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone.
Many things affect the form, texture, color and flavor of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is.
## Origin
People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made, but is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC.
## Classification
There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:
- How long the cheese was aged
- The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer.
- How the cheese was made
- how tasty the cheese is.
- What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk.
- How much fat is in the cheese
- What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white)
There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues.
Different types of cheese include:
|
medium
| false
| false
|
173
|
Constitution
|
The **constitution** of a [country](121) (or a [state](798)) is a special type of [law](426) [document](76829) that tells how its [government](312) is supposed to work. Every country has its own constitution, it tells how the country's [leader](3616)s are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in [office](18121), how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other [rights](117029) they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.
Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution _(see [Rule of Law](40626) )_. On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as [dictatorship](7162) or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a [Federation](65165).
The [UK's constitution](251702) is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with [Magna Carta](34729) of 1215 and the [Bill of Rights Act 1689](236528) and including more modern [Acts of Parliament](66208). Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of [judge](7952)s over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or [judicial](59311) precedence. Because of this, some people say that the [United Kingdom](856) has a _[de facto](32234)_ or "unwritten" constitution.
The [United States](219587) in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the [Articles of Confederation](101168) but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.
[The Indian constitution](330160) of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.
## Related pages
- [Constitutional law](721448)
- [Constitutionalism](376365)
- [Constitutional convention](537781)
- [Constitutional economics](261795)
- [Democracy](3195)
- [International law](28041)
- [Jurisprudence](46931)
- [Rule of law](40626)
- [Social contract](725)
- US Constitution
|
The **constitution** of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. Every country has its own constitution, it tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.
Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution _(see Rule of Law )_. On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.
The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a _de facto_ or "unwritten" constitution.
The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.
The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.
## Related pages
- Constitutional law
- Constitutionalism
- Constitutional convention
- Constitutional economics
- Democracy
- International law
- Jurisprudence
- Rule of law
- Social contract
- US Constitution
|
high
| false
| false
|
175
|
Circle
|
A **circle** is a round, [two-dimensional](45131) shape. All [point](4372)s on the edge of the circle are at the same [distance](203) from the center.
The point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as .
The [diameter](9194) (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius ( equals times ):
The [circumference](49566) (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line.
The number [Pi](643) (written as the [Greek](4606) [letter](6309) _[pi](88833)_) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter ( equals divided by ). As a [fraction](56416) the number is equal to about or (which is closer) and as a number it is about .
The [area](3926), , inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by ( equals times times ).
## Calculating π
can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter () and circumference (). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to times its diameter.
can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing [trigonometry](12436) and [calculus](161). However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the [Gregory-Leibniz](42170) [series](8195):
While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals . A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius centered at the origin. Then any point whose distance from the origin is less than , calculated by the [Pythagorean theorem](6327), will be inside the circle:
Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big . Since the area of a circle is times the radius squared, can be approximated by using the following formula:
### Area
Using the radius:
Using the diameter:
Using the circumference:
### Circumference
Using the radius:
Using the diameter:
Using the area:
### Diameter
Using the radius:
Using the circumference:
Using the area:
### Radius
Using the diameter:
Using the circumference:
Using the area:
## Related pages
- [Concentric](213606)
- [Semicircle](79358)
- [Sphere](3541)
- [Squaring the circle](36627)
- [Pi](643)
- [Tau](1054378)
## Other websites
- [Calculate the measures of a circle online](https://www.mathepower.com/en/circle.php)
|
A **circle** is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center.
The point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as .
The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius ( equals times ):
The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line.
The number Pi (written as the Greek letter _pi_) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter ( equals divided by ). As a fraction the number is equal to about or (which is closer) and as a number it is about .
The area, , inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by ( equals times times ).
## Calculating π
can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter () and circumference (). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to times its diameter.
can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:
While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals . A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius centered at the origin. Then any point whose distance from the origin is less than , calculated by the Pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle:
Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big . Since the area of a circle is times the radius squared, can be approximated by using the following formula:
### Area
Using the radius:
Using the diameter:
Using the circumference:
### Circumference
Using the radius:
Using the diameter:
Using the area:
### Diameter
Using the radius:
Using the circumference:
Using the area:
### Radius
Using the diameter:
Using the circumference:
Using the area:
## Related pages
- Concentric
- Semicircle
- Sphere
- Squaring the circle
- Pi
- Tau
## Other websites
- Calculate the measures of a circle online
|
high
| false
| false
|
176
|
Capitalization
|
**Capitalization** ([North America](557)n spelling), or **capitalisation** ([British](83) spelling), is a process to make one [letter](6309) or more uppercase. The first letter of a [sentence](7721) is capitalised in many [language](419)s, as are the first letters of [proper noun](644)s such as names of people and places. In [German](3346), however, all nouns are capitalized.
In the [Latin alphabet](33447), which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters or majuscules:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
These are the lowercase or small letters or minuscules:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z
The [homonym](2913) "(to) capitalize" is a different word and it means "to fully fund as an [investment](48143)".
## Names of capitalization styles
There are many ways to use capitalization and they have names.
### Sentence case
"[The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog](734702)."
**Sentence case** is the [standard](32521) case used in English [prose](78105) and in many other languages. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.
### Title case
"."
When something is written in **title case** (also known as **capital case** or **headline style**), all words are capitalized, except for certain minor words, such as "the", "of" or "and".
### All caps
""
When something is written in **all caps** (or **all-caps**), every single letter is uppercase, with no exceptions.
### Camel case
**Camel case** (or **CamelCase**) is the practice of writing [compound words](394191) or [phrase](3825)s so that each next word or [abbreviation](32) is capitalized. It can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone.
|
**Capitalization** (North American spelling), or **capitalisation** (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized.
In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters or majuscules:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
These are the lowercase or small letters or minuscules:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z
The homonym "(to) capitalize" is a different word and it means "to fully fund as an investment".
## Names of capitalization styles
There are many ways to use capitalization and they have names.
### Sentence case
"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."
**Sentence case** is the standard case used in English prose and in many other languages. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.
### Title case
"."
When something is written in **title case** (also known as **capital case** or **headline style**), all words are capitalized, except for certain minor words, such as "the", "of" or "and".
### All caps
""
When something is written in **all caps** (or **all-caps**), every single letter is uppercase, with no exceptions.
### Camel case
**Camel case** (or **CamelCase**) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each next word or abbreviation is capitalized. It can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone.
|
high
| false
| false
|
178
|
Cuba
|
**Cuba** is an island country in the [Caribbean Sea](15220). The country is made up of the big [island](367) of Cuba, the [Isla de la Juventud](51047) island (_Isle of Youth_), and many smaller islands. [Havana](20032) is the capital city of Cuba. It is the largest city. The second largest city is [Santiago de Cuba](414811). In Spanish, the capital is called "La Habana". Cuba is near the [United States](219587), [Mexico](1935), [Haiti](15863), [Jamaica](11218) and the Bahamas. People from Cuba are called Cubans (_cubanos_ in [Spanish](6432)). The official language is [Spanish](6432). It is the largest island of the West Indies and the second most [populous](4037) island (after [Hispaniola](52590)) of the West Indies. Cuba is warm all year.
In 1492, [Christopher Columbus](4635) landed on the island of Cuba. He claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba became a Spanish colony until the [Spanish–American War](9996) of 1898. In 1812 Jose Aponte led the [First Cuban rebellion](1087963) against the Spanish monarchy. After the Spanish-American war, it was a protectorate of the [United States](219587). It gained independence in 1902.
In 1959, [guerrilla](24031) fighters led by [Fidel Castro](7169) and [Che Guevara](33158) overthrew Cuba's dictator, [Fulgencio Batista](47863), in what became the [Cuban Revolution](321625). The United States had supported Castro in 1958 by stopping the sale of weapons to the Batista government, At first, relations were friendly between Castro and the United States government under President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](7693). However, Castro began making relations with the [Soviet Union](3600). Castro tried to take over American businesses and land owned by Americans without paying the owners; the United States did not like this. In 1961 Castro officially announced that his government was communist. The new United States President, [John F. Kennedy](8310), ordered an attack to [invade Cuba](447652). The plan was to take control of the country and overthrow its communist government. The attack failed. The [Communist Party of Cuba](684282) was created in 1965 and has ruled the island ever since. Today, Cuba is the only communist state outside of [Asia](1994), in the [Caribbean](15218), and in the [western hemisphere](24338).
## Culture
Cuba is famous for many types of music, especially dance music such as the [Salsa](68412) and [Mambo](348240). Because Cubans have ancestors from Spain, Africa, South America and North America, Cuban music is special and different.
Reading is very popular in Cuba. Many people especially enjoy reading books or things that come from outside the country, even though the government does not approve of this. They also love [music](472) and [sport](699)s. Cuban music is very lively. This is because a lot of it comes from African and Spanish rhythms. [Baseball](6402), [basketball](7500), and [athletics](3763) events are loved by many Cuban people. The Chiefs football-team took at one Football-World-Cup part. In 1938, they reached the quarter-final and lost against [Sweden](2136) 0:8.
### Early history
Before Cuba was conquered by the Spaniards, three tribes lived on the island. They were the Taínos, the Ciboneys, and the Guanajatabeyes. The Taínos were the largest and most common of the three tribes. They farmed crops such as beans, corn, squash, and yams. The Taínos also slept in hammocks, which the Spaniards would introduce to the rest of the world. Then, in 1492, [Christopher Columbus](4635) arrived in Cuba on his first trip to the Americas. Three years later, he claimed the islands for the Spanish. The Spanish began to rule Cuba afterwards. The Spanish brought thousands of slaves from Africa to Cuba to work for them. Most of the native Cubans died because of the new diseases brought by the Spanish and Africans. The Spanish also treated the native Cubans very cruelly and killed many of them.
The Spanish ruled for many years. Cuba became the most important producer of [sugar](9642). In the early 1800s, Cubans rebelled against the Spanish rulers, but failed until 1898, when the United States went to war with the Spanish and defeated them. This was the [Spanish–American War](9996). Cuba became American for four years afterwards, before it became an independent [republic](4978) in [1902](4656). Even though Cuba was independent, the Americans still controlled the island by a law called the [Platt Amendment](375324). In 1933 the Cubans stopped the Platt Amendment, but the Americans still had a big say in Cuban politics. Americans owned most of Cuba’s businesses. The Americans supported the leader Fulgencio Batista, who was seen by many Cubans as corrupt.
As well as controlling Cuban politics, the United States also had a lot of control over the Cuban economy. At the time, Cuba was a [monoculture](307851) economy. They produced coffee, tobacco, and rice, but mostly they produced sugar. So Cuba was known by other countries as the "sugar bowl of the world." The United States bought sugar from the Republic of Cuba at a price higher than everyone else in the world so that Cuba favoured the United States and its industries. Cuba depended on the United States and their investments. Cuba was not industrialized and needed the money for goods and oil. Cuba also needed US money for gas, electricity, communications, railways, and banks. Although Cuban workers had better conditions than other countries in Latin America, they still faced inequality, lack of infrastructure, high illiteracy rates, and a lack of full-time work (the sugar industry was not the same all year round).
### Cuban Revolution
In 1959, [Fidel Castro](7169) led a revolution against [Fulgencio Batista](47863). Castro took power in Cuba with [Che Guevara](33158) from [Argentina](54), his brother Raul, and others who fought against Batista. Castro made many changes to Cuba. He ended American ownership of Cuban businesses. This made Castro unpopular in America and the United States banned all contact with Cuba. Many Cubans went to America because of this. In 1961, the Americans helped some of these Cubans to attack Cuba and try to remove Castro, but they failed. Castro then asked the Soviet Union to help defend them from the Americans, which they did. The [Soviet Union](3600) put nuclear weapons in Cuba and aimed them at the United States. American President Kennedy demanded that they be removed or a new war would begin. This was known as the _[Cuban Missile Crisis](64390)_. The Soviet Union removed the missiles when the United States agreed to not continue attacking Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey.
Cuba became a communist-led country like the Soviet Union after this. The Soviet Union bought most of Cuba’s sugar at high prices. Cuba spent this money on health, education and the army. This made Cuba’s schools and hospitals some of the best in the world. The army fought in [Africa](1942) to support black Africans against the white South African army. Cuba also supported groups in South America fighting against the dictators of those countries.
However, the Cuban government began to control most of life in Cuba under the communist system. Disagreeing with the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in public was not allowed. Some Cubans did not like this and tried to leave Cuba. Most Cubans who left went to the United States. Some Cubans who did not like the government and stayed were put in jail. Many groups from around the world protested against Cuba because of this, and demanded that Fidel Castro give up power.
In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This meant that Cuba, which had sold most of its products to the Soviet Union, had no money coming into the country. The Americans made the restrictions against contact with Cuba tighter. America said the restrictions on contact would continue unless Fidel Castro gave up power. Cuba became very poor in the 1990s. This became known in Cuba as “The Special Period”. Because of the disaster, Cuba changed to allow less control by the government, more discussion amongst the people, and private shops and businesses. Cuba also tried to get tourists to visit the island.
In the 2000s, tourism to Cuba began to make money for the island again. Though [Fidel Castro](7169) had remained in power, he had passed all duties to his brother Raul after an illness. Fidel Castro was one of the longest-serving heads of state. In 2018, [Miguel Díaz-Canel](615956) became the official President of Cuba.
In April 2015, historic talks took place with US president [Barack Obama](223430) and Cuban first secretary [Raúl Castro](122645) about improving relations between the two nations.
The trade embargo issued by President Kennedy in the 1960s was considerably loosened under Obama's administration. US citizens can now travel directly to Cuba at certain times of the year. Before, Americans had to go via [Mexico](1935) if they wanted to go to Cuba. Americans are still not allowed to purchase or smoke Cuban cigars. The cigars are smuggled over the US-Canadian border since they are legal in [Canada](219589).
For military service, men from the age of 17 to 28 years old must go into the army for two years. It is optional for women.
In July 2021, there were demonstrations against the government.
## Administrative divisions
The country is divided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are divided into municipalities.
## Demographics
The population of Cuba is close to 13 million. The people of Cuba come from three different groups. The largest group is the descendants of the [Spanish](219832) settlers who came to Cuba. The smallest group is the descendants of the black African slaves who were brought in to do the work and birth children (in the barracoon) as [New World](22002) slaves who could be legally sold into life time bondage in the United States. The middle-sized group is a mix of African and Spanish. The government succeeded in seeing that the three different groups were treated the same. According to a DNA Caribbean Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of the population of Cuba is:
- European Cubans descend from settlers that came during the very late 15th century and onward. Most white Cubans came from many different parts of [Spain](219832), but most came from the [Canary Islanders](19765), [Andalusia](20278)ns, and Catalans. There was as well some [French](291), [Italian](363) and [English](3047) people. Whites make up approximately 30% of Cuba's population as of 2012, and they mostly populate the western part of Cuba, specially cities like [Havana](20032) and Pinar del Rio. These people brought with them their language, religions, music and others.
- [Africa](1942)ns and [Mulatto](62990) Cubans descend from the arrival of African slaves that came from various parts of [Africa](1942) but the most numerous were West Africans. There were also more than 500,000 [Haiti](15863)ans that came to Cuba during the [Haitian Revolution](269840) days. Most Cuban slaves tended to come from the [Kongo](1066744) and [Yoruba](413582) tribes, there were also the Igbos, Ewes, Fons, Fulas, Mandinkas and some others. Afro-Cubans range enormously from 33.9 percent to 70 percent of the population, and they are mostly concentrated in the east parts of Cuba. These brought with them their instruments, religion (Santeria), and customs to the Cuban culture.
- Mediterranean Cubans are about 3% of the population; however, one must know that a lot of the southern Spaniard Cuban descendants have a good portion of Moor blood in their family lines. This is due to the close proximaty of Spain to North Africa. Many Mediterranean Cubans came during the 1820s-1880s and sometimes onward. These are mostly concentrated in the east, especially in cities such as Guantanamo Bay. They brought much of their foods and cuisines to Cuba and a few words.
[Christianity](219595) is the most widespread [religion](653) in Cuba, with [Catholicism](7160) being its largest [denomination](37979), which is practiced by more than 53% of the Cuban population. [Protestantism](9600) is practiced by less than 3% of the Cuban population. A large part of the Cuban population is either [non-religious](382143) or practices [folk religion](1064984)s such as Santeria. [Hinduism](5961) is practiced by 0.2% of the population and [Islam](219592) is practiced by less than 0.1% of the population.
## Health and education
Cuba is a [developing country](193066), and, by economic measures, is a very [poor](23668) country. In some aspects however, like [education](2113), health care and [life expectancy](120211) it ranks much better than most countries in Latin America. Its [infant death rate](309617) is lower than some developed countries. The average life expectancy is 78 years, about the same as in the United States.
All the children are required to go to school from six to twelve years old, and nearly everybody is able to read and write at least. There is free education at every level. Because of this, Cuba has a 99.8% literacy rate.
In 2006, the [World Food Programme](795057) certified Cuba to be the only country in this region without undernourished children. In the same year, the [United Nations](4549) said that Cuba was the only nation in the world that met the [World Wide Fund for Nature](22737)'s definition of [sustainable development](26109).
## Geography
Cuba is the largest island in the West Indies. It has many resources. Only about one-fourth of the land is mountains or hills. Much of the land is gentle hills or plains which are good for farming or raising cattle. Cuba has fertile soil and a mostly warm and humid climate that makes it a great place for growing crops.
Sugar is the most important crop of Cuba, which is made from sugar cane. Sugar cane is the largest cash crop grown in Cuba, and it brings in most of the money. After that, the second is [tobacco](8925). Tobacco is made into [cigar](44236)s by hand. A hand-made cigar is considered by many people to be the finest in the world. Other important crops are [rice](5437), [coffee](4715), and [fruit](293). Cuba also has many minerals. [Cobalt](24200), [nickel](24207), [iron](223080), [copper](6709), and [manganese](20213) are all on the island. Salt, [petroleum](4113), and natural gas are there too. The coast of Cuba has many [bay](34569)s and a few good harbors. Havana, which is the capital, is also a port. Other harbors have port cities. Nuevitas is a port city on the north [coast](7717). Cienfuegos, Guantánamo, and Santiago de Cuba are some of the port cities on the south coast.
Cuba has a semi-tropical climate. That means that the cool ocean winds keep it from becoming hot, despite it being in the tropical zone. Cuba has a wet season and a dry season. The dry season is from November to April, and the wet season is from May to October. August to October is also the hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, most of Cuba's port cities can be flooded along the coast.
## Economy
Cuba has a planned economy. That means the government decides what things should be made and what services should be provided. In recent years, the government has allowed people to sell fruits and vegetables or things they have made. People are allowed to build houses for themselves if they have money. Most people work for the government. People who work for the government do not get paid much money. Salaries in Cuba are the lowest in the world, but some things are free that people in other countries have to pay for. The government owns most of the houses. People do not have to pay rent to live in them. School is free. Health care is free. People do not have to pay to go to a doctor or hospital.
Relatives living in other countries often send some money to their parents, brothers or sisters still living in Cuba. Money from other countries is very valuable in Cuba.
## Related pages
- [Cuba at the Olympics](300813)
- [Cuba national football team](171325)
- [List of rivers of Cuba](336706)
- United States–Cuban thaw (2015–2017)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Cuba
- **image flag**: Flag of Cuba.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Cuba.svg
- **other symbol**: <div style="padding:0.3em;">
</div>
- **other symbol type**: Coat of arms symbol
- **national motto**: ¡Hasta la Victoria Siempre! (Spanish language, Spanish)
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: Cuba Map Colors ProvinciasRev wNumbs.jpg
- **map caption**: The 6 main provinces of which Cuba is divides into. Ciudad de La Habana is highlighted as blue.
- **image map2**: Cuba (orthographic projection).svg
- **map caption2**: Cuba highlighted on the Globe
- **image map3**: Cuba - Location Map (2013) - CUB - UNOCHA.svg
- **capital**: Ciudad de la Habana
- **capital type**: Capital Settlement
- **official languages**: Spanish language, Spanish, Cuban Spanish, Castellano and Esperanto
- **regional languages**: Habla Bantú
Lucumí
Haitian Creole, Creole
Corsican Language, Corsican
Galician language, Galician
Esperanto
Habla Congo<hr>
- **ethnic groups**: *50% Mixed
*35% White
*15% Black
- **religion**: Roman Catholic: 58.9%
Folk religions: 23.2%
Non religion: 17.9%
- **demonym**: Cubanos
- **membership**: Caribbean Community
- **government type**: One party, One party unitary republic system
- **leader title1**: First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, First Secretary and President of Cuba, President
- **leader name1**: Miguel Díaz-Canel
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Cuba, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Manuel Marrero Cruz, Manuel Marrero
- **leader title3**: Vice President of Cuba, Vice President
- **leader name3**: Salvador Valdés Mesa
- **legislature**: National Assembly of People's Power of Cuba, National Assembly of People's Power
- **sovereignty type**: Sovereign communist country
- **established event1**: Fundamental Law
- **established date1**: 7 February 1959
- **established event2**: Agrarian Reforms
- **established date2**: 17 May 1959
- **established event3**: Second Declaration of La Habana
- **established date3**: 4 February 1962
- **established event4**: Constitution of Cuba, Constitution approved
- **established date4**: 24 February 1976
- **area km2**: 112,720
- **area rank**: 62nd
- **percent water**: 0.94%
- **population estimate**: 11,707,102
- **population census**: 11,113,128
- **population estimate year**: 2021
- **population census year**: 2012
- **population density km2**: 100.9
- **population density rank**: 55th
- **gdp ppp**: $633.442 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2023
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $22,237
- **gdp nominal**: 254.865 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2022
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $13,128
- **gini**: 38.0
- **gini year**: 2000
- **hdi**: 0.825
- **currency**: Cuban peso, Convertible
- **currency code**: CUP
- **time zone**: UTC-5 (CST)
- **dst**: UTC-4 (CDT)
- **date format**: (DD/MM/YYYY)
- **drives on**: Right side
- **calling code**: +53
- **patron saint**: Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre
- **iso3166code**: CU
- **cctld**: .cu
- **footnotes**: Cuba is an independent state under communist left wing rule since 1959.
In 1960, Cuba reached a population of 5,876,052.
In the 1970 Census, Cuba registered a population of 7,077,190.
In the 1981 Census, the population increased to 8,553,395. (due to economic crisis the 1990s census had to be postponed to 2002).
In the 2002 Census, Cuba recorded a population of over 10,000,000 inhabitants.
In the 2012 Census, the population reached its peak of 11,113,128 people.
The most inhabited city is Ciudad de la Habana with a recorded population of 2,106,146.
- **flag alt**: Flag of CARICOM.svg
- **religion year**: 2020
|
**Cuba** is an island country in the Caribbean Sea. The country is made up of the big island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud island (_Isle of Youth_), and many smaller islands. Havana is the capital city of Cuba. It is the largest city. The second largest city is Santiago de Cuba. In Spanish, the capital is called "La Habana". Cuba is near the United States, Mexico, Haiti, Jamaica and the Bahamas. People from Cuba are called Cubans (_cubanos_ in Spanish). The official language is Spanish. It is the largest island of the West Indies and the second most populous island (after Hispaniola) of the West Indies. Cuba is warm all year.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba. He claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba became a Spanish colony until the Spanish–American War of 1898. In 1812 Jose Aponte led the First Cuban rebellion against the Spanish monarchy. After the Spanish-American war, it was a protectorate of the United States. It gained independence in 1902.
In 1959, guerrilla fighters led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew Cuba's dictator, Fulgencio Batista, in what became the Cuban Revolution. The United States had supported Castro in 1958 by stopping the sale of weapons to the Batista government, At first, relations were friendly between Castro and the United States government under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. However, Castro began making relations with the Soviet Union. Castro tried to take over American businesses and land owned by Americans without paying the owners; the United States did not like this. In 1961 Castro officially announced that his government was communist. The new United States President, John F. Kennedy, ordered an attack to invade Cuba. The plan was to take control of the country and overthrow its communist government. The attack failed. The Communist Party of Cuba was created in 1965 and has ruled the island ever since. Today, Cuba is the only communist state outside of Asia, in the Caribbean, and in the western hemisphere.
## Culture
Cuba is famous for many types of music, especially dance music such as the Salsa and Mambo. Because Cubans have ancestors from Spain, Africa, South America and North America, Cuban music is special and different.
Reading is very popular in Cuba. Many people especially enjoy reading books or things that come from outside the country, even though the government does not approve of this. They also love music and sports. Cuban music is very lively. This is because a lot of it comes from African and Spanish rhythms. Baseball, basketball, and athletics events are loved by many Cuban people. The Chiefs football-team took at one Football-World-Cup part. In 1938, they reached the quarter-final and lost against Sweden 0:8.
### Early history
Before Cuba was conquered by the Spaniards, three tribes lived on the island. They were the Taínos, the Ciboneys, and the Guanajatabeyes. The Taínos were the largest and most common of the three tribes. They farmed crops such as beans, corn, squash, and yams. The Taínos also slept in hammocks, which the Spaniards would introduce to the rest of the world. Then, in 1492, Christopher Columbus arrived in Cuba on his first trip to the Americas. Three years later, he claimed the islands for the Spanish. The Spanish began to rule Cuba afterwards. The Spanish brought thousands of slaves from Africa to Cuba to work for them. Most of the native Cubans died because of the new diseases brought by the Spanish and Africans. The Spanish also treated the native Cubans very cruelly and killed many of them.
The Spanish ruled for many years. Cuba became the most important producer of sugar. In the early 1800s, Cubans rebelled against the Spanish rulers, but failed until 1898, when the United States went to war with the Spanish and defeated them. This was the Spanish–American War. Cuba became American for four years afterwards, before it became an independent republic in 1902. Even though Cuba was independent, the Americans still controlled the island by a law called the Platt Amendment. In 1933 the Cubans stopped the Platt Amendment, but the Americans still had a big say in Cuban politics. Americans owned most of Cuba’s businesses. The Americans supported the leader Fulgencio Batista, who was seen by many Cubans as corrupt.
As well as controlling Cuban politics, the United States also had a lot of control over the Cuban economy. At the time, Cuba was a monoculture economy. They produced coffee, tobacco, and rice, but mostly they produced sugar. So Cuba was known by other countries as the "sugar bowl of the world." The United States bought sugar from the Republic of Cuba at a price higher than everyone else in the world so that Cuba favoured the United States and its industries. Cuba depended on the United States and their investments. Cuba was not industrialized and needed the money for goods and oil. Cuba also needed US money for gas, electricity, communications, railways, and banks. Although Cuban workers had better conditions than other countries in Latin America, they still faced inequality, lack of infrastructure, high illiteracy rates, and a lack of full-time work (the sugar industry was not the same all year round).
### Cuban Revolution
In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution against Fulgencio Batista. Castro took power in Cuba with Che Guevara from Argentina, his brother Raul, and others who fought against Batista. Castro made many changes to Cuba. He ended American ownership of Cuban businesses. This made Castro unpopular in America and the United States banned all contact with Cuba. Many Cubans went to America because of this. In 1961, the Americans helped some of these Cubans to attack Cuba and try to remove Castro, but they failed. Castro then asked the Soviet Union to help defend them from the Americans, which they did. The Soviet Union put nuclear weapons in Cuba and aimed them at the United States. American President Kennedy demanded that they be removed or a new war would begin. This was known as the _Cuban Missile Crisis_. The Soviet Union removed the missiles when the United States agreed to not continue attacking Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey.
Cuba became a communist-led country like the Soviet Union after this. The Soviet Union bought most of Cuba’s sugar at high prices. Cuba spent this money on health, education and the army. This made Cuba’s schools and hospitals some of the best in the world. The army fought in Africa to support black Africans against the white South African army. Cuba also supported groups in South America fighting against the dictators of those countries.
However, the Cuban government began to control most of life in Cuba under the communist system. Disagreeing with the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in public was not allowed. Some Cubans did not like this and tried to leave Cuba. Most Cubans who left went to the United States. Some Cubans who did not like the government and stayed were put in jail. Many groups from around the world protested against Cuba because of this, and demanded that Fidel Castro give up power.
In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This meant that Cuba, which had sold most of its products to the Soviet Union, had no money coming into the country. The Americans made the restrictions against contact with Cuba tighter. America said the restrictions on contact would continue unless Fidel Castro gave up power. Cuba became very poor in the 1990s. This became known in Cuba as “The Special Period”. Because of the disaster, Cuba changed to allow less control by the government, more discussion amongst the people, and private shops and businesses. Cuba also tried to get tourists to visit the island.
In the 2000s, tourism to Cuba began to make money for the island again. Though Fidel Castro had remained in power, he had passed all duties to his brother Raul after an illness. Fidel Castro was one of the longest-serving heads of state. In 2018, Miguel Díaz-Canel became the official President of Cuba.
In April 2015, historic talks took place with US president Barack Obama and Cuban first secretary Raúl Castro about improving relations between the two nations.
The trade embargo issued by President Kennedy in the 1960s was considerably loosened under Obama's administration. US citizens can now travel directly to Cuba at certain times of the year. Before, Americans had to go via Mexico if they wanted to go to Cuba. Americans are still not allowed to purchase or smoke Cuban cigars. The cigars are smuggled over the US-Canadian border since they are legal in Canada.
For military service, men from the age of 17 to 28 years old must go into the army for two years. It is optional for women.
In July 2021, there were demonstrations against the government.
## Administrative divisions
The country is divided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are divided into municipalities.
## Demographics
The population of Cuba is close to 13 million. The people of Cuba come from three different groups. The largest group is the descendants of the Spanish settlers who came to Cuba. The smallest group is the descendants of the black African slaves who were brought in to do the work and birth children (in the barracoon) as New World slaves who could be legally sold into life time bondage in the United States. The middle-sized group is a mix of African and Spanish. The government succeeded in seeing that the three different groups were treated the same. According to a DNA Caribbean Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of the population of Cuba is:
- European Cubans descend from settlers that came during the very late 15th century and onward. Most white Cubans came from many different parts of Spain, but most came from the Canary Islanders, Andalusians, and Catalans. There was as well some French, Italian and English people. Whites make up approximately 30% of Cuba's population as of 2012, and they mostly populate the western part of Cuba, specially cities like Havana and Pinar del Rio. These people brought with them their language, religions, music and others.
- Africans and Mulatto Cubans descend from the arrival of African slaves that came from various parts of Africa but the most numerous were West Africans. There were also more than 500,000 Haitians that came to Cuba during the Haitian Revolution days. Most Cuban slaves tended to come from the Kongo and Yoruba tribes, there were also the Igbos, Ewes, Fons, Fulas, Mandinkas and some others. Afro-Cubans range enormously from 33.9 percent to 70 percent of the population, and they are mostly concentrated in the east parts of Cuba. These brought with them their instruments, religion (Santeria), and customs to the Cuban culture.
- Mediterranean Cubans are about 3% of the population; however, one must know that a lot of the southern Spaniard Cuban descendants have a good portion of Moor blood in their family lines. This is due to the close proximaty of Spain to North Africa. Many Mediterranean Cubans came during the 1820s-1880s and sometimes onward. These are mostly concentrated in the east, especially in cities such as Guantanamo Bay. They brought much of their foods and cuisines to Cuba and a few words.
Christianity is the most widespread religion in Cuba, with Catholicism being its largest denomination, which is practiced by more than 53% of the Cuban population. Protestantism is practiced by less than 3% of the Cuban population. A large part of the Cuban population is either non-religious or practices folk religions such as Santeria. Hinduism is practiced by 0.2% of the population and Islam is practiced by less than 0.1% of the population.
## Health and education
Cuba is a developing country, and, by economic measures, is a very poor country. In some aspects however, like education, health care and life expectancy it ranks much better than most countries in Latin America. Its infant death rate is lower than some developed countries. The average life expectancy is 78 years, about the same as in the United States.
All the children are required to go to school from six to twelve years old, and nearly everybody is able to read and write at least. There is free education at every level. Because of this, Cuba has a 99.8% literacy rate.
In 2006, the World Food Programme certified Cuba to be the only country in this region without undernourished children. In the same year, the United Nations said that Cuba was the only nation in the world that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development.
## Geography
Cuba is the largest island in the West Indies. It has many resources. Only about one-fourth of the land is mountains or hills. Much of the land is gentle hills or plains which are good for farming or raising cattle. Cuba has fertile soil and a mostly warm and humid climate that makes it a great place for growing crops.
Sugar is the most important crop of Cuba, which is made from sugar cane. Sugar cane is the largest cash crop grown in Cuba, and it brings in most of the money. After that, the second is tobacco. Tobacco is made into cigars by hand. A hand-made cigar is considered by many people to be the finest in the world. Other important crops are rice, coffee, and fruit. Cuba also has many minerals. Cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, and manganese are all on the island. Salt, petroleum, and natural gas are there too. The coast of Cuba has many bays and a few good harbors. Havana, which is the capital, is also a port. Other harbors have port cities. Nuevitas is a port city on the north coast. Cienfuegos, Guantánamo, and Santiago de Cuba are some of the port cities on the south coast.
Cuba has a semi-tropical climate. That means that the cool ocean winds keep it from becoming hot, despite it being in the tropical zone. Cuba has a wet season and a dry season. The dry season is from November to April, and the wet season is from May to October. August to October is also the hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, most of Cuba's port cities can be flooded along the coast.
## Economy
Cuba has a planned economy. That means the government decides what things should be made and what services should be provided. In recent years, the government has allowed people to sell fruits and vegetables or things they have made. People are allowed to build houses for themselves if they have money. Most people work for the government. People who work for the government do not get paid much money. Salaries in Cuba are the lowest in the world, but some things are free that people in other countries have to pay for. The government owns most of the houses. People do not have to pay rent to live in them. School is free. Health care is free. People do not have to pay to go to a doctor or hospital.
Relatives living in other countries often send some money to their parents, brothers or sisters still living in Cuba. Money from other countries is very valuable in Cuba.
## Related pages
- Cuba at the Olympics
- Cuba national football team
- List of rivers of Cuba
- United States–Cuban thaw (2015–2017)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Cuba
- **image flag**: Flag of Cuba.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Cuba.svg
- **other symbol**: <div style="padding:0.3em;">
</div>
- **other symbol type**: Coat of arms symbol
- **national motto**: ¡Hasta la Victoria Siempre! (Spanish language, Spanish)
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: Cuba Map Colors ProvinciasRev wNumbs.jpg
- **map caption**: The 6 main provinces of which Cuba is divides into. Ciudad de La Habana is highlighted as blue.
- **image map2**: Cuba (orthographic projection).svg
- **map caption2**: Cuba highlighted on the Globe
- **image map3**: Cuba - Location Map (2013) - CUB - UNOCHA.svg
- **capital**: Ciudad de la Habana
- **capital type**: Capital Settlement
- **official languages**: Spanish language, Spanish, Cuban Spanish, Castellano and Esperanto
- **regional languages**: Habla Bantú
Lucumí
Haitian Creole, Creole
Corsican Language, Corsican
Galician language, Galician
Esperanto
Habla Congo<hr>
- **ethnic groups**: *50% Mixed
*35% White
*15% Black
- **religion**: Roman Catholic: 58.9%
Folk religions: 23.2%
Non religion: 17.9%
- **demonym**: Cubanos
- **membership**: Caribbean Community
- **government type**: One party, One party unitary republic system
- **leader title1**: First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, First Secretary and President of Cuba, President
- **leader name1**: Miguel Díaz-Canel
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Cuba, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Manuel Marrero Cruz, Manuel Marrero
- **leader title3**: Vice President of Cuba, Vice President
- **leader name3**: Salvador Valdés Mesa
- **legislature**: National Assembly of People's Power of Cuba, National Assembly of People's Power
- **sovereignty type**: Sovereign communist country
- **established event1**: Fundamental Law
- **established date1**: 7 February 1959
- **established event2**: Agrarian Reforms
- **established date2**: 17 May 1959
- **established event3**: Second Declaration of La Habana
- **established date3**: 4 February 1962
- **established event4**: Constitution of Cuba, Constitution approved
- **established date4**: 24 February 1976
- **area km2**: 112,720
- **area rank**: 62nd
- **percent water**: 0.94%
- **population estimate**: 11,707,102
- **population census**: 11,113,128
- **population estimate year**: 2021
- **population census year**: 2012
- **population density km2**: 100.9
- **population density rank**: 55th
- **gdp ppp**: $633.442 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2023
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $22,237
- **gdp nominal**: 254.865 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2022
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $13,128
- **gini**: 38.0
- **gini year**: 2000
- **hdi**: 0.825
- **currency**: Cuban peso, Convertible
- **currency code**: CUP
- **time zone**: UTC-5 (CST)
- **dst**: UTC-4 (CDT)
- **date format**: (DD/MM/YYYY)
- **drives on**: Right side
- **calling code**: +53
- **patron saint**: Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre
- **iso3166code**: CU
- **cctld**: .cu
- **footnotes**: Cuba is an independent state under communist left wing rule since 1959.
In 1960, Cuba reached a population of 5,876,052.
In the 1970 Census, Cuba registered a population of 7,077,190.
In the 1981 Census, the population increased to 8,553,395. (due to economic crisis the 1990s census had to be postponed to 2002).
In the 2002 Census, Cuba recorded a population of over 10,000,000 inhabitants.
In the 2012 Census, the population reached its peak of 11,113,128 people.
The most inhabited city is Ciudad de la Habana with a recorded population of 2,106,146.
- **flag alt**: Flag of CARICOM.svg
- **religion year**: 2020
|
high
| false
| false
|
180
|
Cube
|
A **cube** is a type of [polyhedron](60176) with all [right angle](676)s and whose [height](348), [width](937) and [depth](204) are all the same. It is a type of [rectangular prism](217813), which is itself a type of [hexahedron](21996).
A cube is one of the simplest [mathematical shape](21986)s in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called _cubic_.
Surface area of cube=6l^2
Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
Volume of cube=l^3
## Relative 2-dimensional shape
The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a [3D](7126) figure (having 3 [dimension](199)s) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
The 2-dimensional ([2D](45131)) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight [line](4373)s. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of [dice](5395). A [tesseract](174293) carries this idea into the fourth dimension ([4D](317893)) and is made of 8 cubes.
## Volume
- The [volume](895) of a cube is the [length](7954) of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) _cubed_.
- This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again.
- If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=d×d×d (or Volume=d<sup>3</sup>).
## Cube-shaped figures
- [Dice](5395)
- [Box](5102)es
|
A **cube** is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.
A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called _cubic_.
Surface area of cube=6l^2
Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
Volume of cube=l^3
## Relative 2-dimensional shape
The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes.
## Volume
- The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) _cubed_.
- This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again.
- If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=d×d×d (or Volume=d<sup>3</sup>).
## Cube-shaped figures
- Dice
- Boxes
|
high
| false
| false
|
182
|
Cost of living
|
**Cost of living** is the amount of [money](479) it costs just to live in a certain place. It is measured using a list of things people need, like [food](280) and [housing](4900). [Governments](312) measure cost of living to give [welfare](308544) (money or benefits for poor people) and to set [minimum wage](58700).
When the cost of living is higher than people can pay, a cost of living crisis happens. Causes for a cost of living crisis can be [poverty](23668), people making less money due to [inflation](14655), increased cost of needed items, and problems with the economy. This crisis can cause health effects right away and in the future.
|
**Cost of living** is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It is measured using a list of things people need, like food and housing. Governments measure cost of living to give welfare (money or benefits for poor people) and to set minimum wage.
When the cost of living is higher than people can pay, a cost of living crisis happens. Causes for a cost of living crisis can be poverty, people making less money due to inflation, increased cost of needed items, and problems with the economy. This crisis can cause health effects right away and in the future.
|
unknown
| false
| false
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.