page_id
int64 1
1.24M
| title
stringlengths 1
250
| content
stringlengths 0
77.3k
| content_no_link
stringlengths 0
73.1k
| importance
stringclasses 4
values | truncated
bool 2
classes | error
bool 2
classes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
185
|
December
|
**December** (Dec.) is the twelfth and last [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming between [November](530) (of the current year) and [January](400) (of the following year). It has 31 days. With the name of the month coming from the [Latin](6592) _decem_ for "ten", it was the tenth month of the year before [January](400) and [February](262) were added to the [Roman calendar](606601).
December always begins on the same day of the week as [September](684), and ends on the same day of the week as [April](1).
December's [flower](7947) is the Narcissus. Its birthstone is the [turquoise](90629).
Some of the [holiday](25893)s celebrated in December are [Christmas](3317), [New Year's Eve](25233), [Kwanzaa](237030), and [Hanukkah](173205).
## The Month
December is the twelfth and last month of every [calendar](7517) year in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), and is one of seven months of the year to have 31 days. [December 31](8744) is followed by [January 1](7503) of the following year.
December begins on the same day of the week as [September](684) every year, as each other's first days are exactly 13 [week](3935)s (91 [day](3539)s) apart. December ends on the same day of the week as [April](1) every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In common years, December starts on the same day of the week as [April](1) and [July](402) of the previous year, and in leap years, [October](569) of the previous year. In common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, [February](262) and October of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, December both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as [January](400) of the previous year.
In years immediately before [common year](3974)s, December starts on the same day of the week as [June](401) of the following year, and in years immediately before [leap year](434)s, [March](468) and [November](530) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as [September](684) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.
December is one of two months to have a [solstice](16611) (the other is [June](401), its seasonal equivalent in both [hemisphere](31981)s), and in this month the [Tropic of Capricorn](45305) in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161) is turned towards the [Sun](44408), meaning that [December 21](10106) or [December 22](6825) is the Northern [Winter Solstice](108078) and the Southern [Summer Solstice](108080). This means that this date would have the least daylight of any day in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829), and the most in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). There are 24 hours of darkness at the [North Pole](2028) and 24 hours of daylight at the [South Pole](1977).
In mainly Christian countries, December is dominated by [Christmas](3317), which is celebrated on [December 25](8745) in most of those countries, though Eastern Orthodox Christians celebrate it on [January 7](9670). It marks the birth of Jesus Christ. [Epiphany](411081), [January 6](9669), is also important in relation to Christmas. [Advent](146054) starts on the [Sunday](3837) on, or closest to, [November 30](10092), and some countries have their own related celebration before the 25th. [Sinterklaas](269903) is celebrated on [December 5](9932) in the [Netherlands](3463) and [Belgium](103), and St. Nicholas Day on [December 6](9933) is also celebrated in some countries. The [Scandinavia](9141)n countries, mainly [Sweden](2136), celebrate [St. Lucia Day](40823) on [December 13](10101), while [Iceland](2979) celebrates Thorlaksmessa on [December 23](5152). The week after Christmas is spent preparing for [New Year](59249).
[Judaism](219593)'s festival of light, [Hanukkah](173205), is also celebrated over eight days in this month.
### Fixed dates
- [December 1](9930) - World [AIDS](36802) Day
- [December 1](9930) - National Day of [Romania](2124)
- [December 1](9930) - Self-government Day ([Iceland](2979))
- [December 1](9930) - Day of Restoration of Independence ([Portugal](3466))
- [December 1](9930) - First Day of [Summer](3640) ([Australia](27))
- [December 2](9567) - National Day of [Laos](5789)
- [December 2](9567) - National Day of the [United Arab Emirates](21534)
- [December 2](9567) - International Day for the Abolition of [Slavery](803)
- [December 4](9931) - [Navy](5818) Day in [India](391) and [Italy](363)
- [December 4](9931) - Miners' Day ([Poland](3045))
- [December 4](9931) - Tupou I Day ([Tonga](10017))
- [December 5](9932) - [Sinterklaas](269903) ([Netherlands](3463), [Belgium](103))
- [December 5](9932) - [Birthday](22419) of King [Bhumibol Adulyadej](119521) of [Thailand](10138)
- [December 6](9933) - Saint Nicholas Day
- [December 6](9933) - Independence Day ([Finland](292))
- [December 6](9933) - [Constitution](173) Day ([Spain](219832))
- [December 7](9934) - St. [Ambrose](374579) Day
- [December 7](9934) - Pearl Harbor Day ([United States](219587))
- [December 8](9935) - Constitution Day in [Romania](2124) and [Uzbekistan](21532)
- [December 8](9935) - Day of the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholicism)
- [December 9](9936) - National Day of [Tanzania](12839)
- [December 10](10099) - [Nobel Prize](6494) Day
- [December 10](10099) - Constitution Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [December 10](10099) - Human Rights Day
- [December 11](8918) - Republic Day ([Burkina Faso](19175))
- [December 11](8918) - [Indiana](12325) Day
- [December 11](8918) - International [Mountain](3924) Day
- [December 12](10100) - Independence Day ([Kenya](3440))
- [December 12](10100) - Our Lady of Guadalupe (Roman Catholicism)
- [December 13](10101) - [St. Lucia Day](40823)
- [December 14](5164) - [Alabama](9287) Day
- [December 15](10102) - Homecoming Day ([Alderney](23111))
- [December 15](10102) - Kingdom Day ([Netherlands](3463))
- [December 15](10102) - Zamenhof Day ([Esperanto](13331) supporters)
- [December 16](10103) - Independence Day ([Kazakhstan](11232))
- [December 16](10103) - Day of Reconciliation ([South Africa](3528))
- [December 16](10103) - Victory Day in [India](391) and [Bangladesh](15790)
- [December 17](10104) - National Day of [Bhutan](13773)
- [December 18](8725) - National Day of [Qatar](15245)
- [December 18](8725) - [New Jersey](14855) Day
- [December 18](8725) - Republic Day ([Niger](18023))
- [December 18](8725) - International Migrants Day
- [December 18](8725) - [United Nations](4549) Day of the [Arabic language](8522)
- [December 21](10106)/[22](6825) - Northern [Winter Solstice](108078) and Southern [Summer Solstice](108080)
- [December 22](6825) - Dongzhi Festival (East [Asia](1994))
- [December 22](6825) - Mother's Day ([Indonesia](3334))
- [December 23](5152) - [Birthday](22419) of [Emperor](9224) [Akihito](17478) ([Japan](403))
- [December 23](5152) - Thorlaksmessa/St. Thorlak's Day ([Iceland](2979))
- [December 23](5152) - HumanLight (Secular [Humanism](21906))
- [December 24](6826) - Independence Day ([Libya](14617))
- [December 24](6826) - Christmas Eve in Western [Christianity](219595)
- [December 25](8745) - [Christmas](3317) [Day](3539) in Western Christianity
- [December 25](8745) - [Birthday](22419) of [Muhammad Ali Jinnah](30292) ([Pakistan](5071))
- [December 26](10109) - [Boxing Day](129040) (UK)
- [December 26](10109) - St. Stephen's Day ([Republic of Ireland](5074))
- [December 26](10109) - First Day of [Kwanzaa](237030)
- [December 27](10107) - Constitution Day ([North Korea](4074))
- [December 27](10107) - St. Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church)
- [December 28](10111) - Proclamation Day ([South Australia](37521))
- [December 28](10111) - Day of the Holy Innocents, celebrated in [Spanish-speaking](6432) countries in a similar way to [April Fools' Day](28592)
- [December 29](10105) - Independence Day ([Mongolia](17840))
- [December 31](8744) - [New Year's Eve](25233)/ [St. Silvester](688564)'s Day - known as Hogmanay in [Scotland](3049) and Calennig in [Wales](3048)
### Moveable and Non-Single Day Events
- [Hanukkah](173205) ([Judaism](219593)) - celebrated over a period of eight days
- [Advent](146054) in Western [Christianity](219595)
- First Sunday in Advent occurs between [November 27](10090) and [December 3](9193)
- Second Sunday in Advent occurs between [December 4](9931) and [December 10](10099)
- Third Sunday in Advent occurs between [December 11](8918) and [December 17](10104)
- Fourth and final Sunday in Advent occurs between [December 18](8725) and [December 24](6826)
- [Kwanzaa](237030) is from [December 26](10109) to [January 1](7503)
- [Marathon](6580) races held in December
- [Fukuoka](45821), [Japan](403)
- [Las Vegas](432), [Nevada](11442), [United States](219587)
- [Singapore](5909)
- [Taipei](17173), [Taiwan](833)
- [Honolulu](333), [Hawaii](332), [United States](219587)
## Historical Events
- [December 1](9930), [1918](9268) - The [Kingdom](9597) of [Yugoslavia](15797) is proclaimed. On the same day, [Transylvania](34180) unites with [Romania](2124).
- [December 1](9930), [1918](9268) - [Iceland](2979) becomes independent, but remains under the [Danish](208) [crown](18549).
- [December 1](9930), [1955](9230) - A protest by [Rosa Parks](35750) on an [Alabama](9287) bus starts the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
- [December 2](9567), [1804](7895) - Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself [Emperor](9224) of [France](291).
- [December 2](9567), [1942](9213) - A team led by [Enrico Fermi](80818) initiates the first nuclear chain reaction.
- [December 3](9193), [1984](9264) - A deadly chemical leak in [Bhopal](21595), [India](391), kills 8,000 people instantly.
- [December 5](9932), [2013](34906) - Former [South Africa](3528)n [President](4044) and Anti-[Apartheid](6393) icon [Nelson Mandela](8575) dies aged 95.
- [December 6](9933), [1917](11700) - [Finland](292) declares independence from [Russia](2964).
- [December 7](9934), [1941](4628) - During [World War II](219837), The [Japan](403)ese attack Pearl Harbor, [Hawaii](332), [US](720016).
- [December 8](9935), [1980](8714) - [John Lennon](7711) is shot dead by Mark David Chapman.
- [December 9](9936), [1961](8336) - [Tanganyika](274413) becomes independent. It later merges with [Zanzibar](63261) to form [Tanzania](12839).
- [December 10](10099), [1901](15865) - The first [Nobel Prize](6494)s are awarded.
- [December 11](8918), [1936](8715) - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom abdicates from the throne.
- [December 12](10100), [1911](8732) - [Delhi](22106) becomes the capital city of [India](391).
- [December 12](10100), [1963](8718) - [Kenya](3440) becomes independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
- [December 14](5164), [1861](16534) - Albert, Prince Consort of [Great Britain](3051) and [Ireland](361) dies aged 42, placing [Queen Victoria](7359) in a state of mourning his loss for the rest of her life.
- [December 14](5164), [1911](8732) - A [Norwegian](3460) expedition led by [Roald Amundsen](4634) reaches the [South Pole](1977), where previously no human had ever been.
- [December 15](10102), [1891](11238) - [James Naismith](266262) introduces [basketball](7500).
- [December 16](10103), [1920](8413) - An [earthquake](2081) in Gansu province, [China](120), kills around 200,000 people.
- [December 16](10103), [1991](3963) - [Kazakhstan](11232) declares independence from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [December 17](10104), [1903](8065) - The [Wright brothers](5119) make their first flight in Kitty Hawk, [North Carolina](14854).
- [December 17](10104), [1907](8724) - Ugyen Wangchuck becomes [King](410) of [Bhutan](13773).
- [December 17](10104), [2010](14361) - Start of the [Arab Spring](317180), a series of uprisings across [North Africa](19031) and the [Middle East](4368).
- [December 19](10108), [1783](8337) - [William Pitt the Younger](48091) becomes the youngest [Prime Minister of Great Britain](18060).
- [December 20](10110), [1999](3955) - [Portugal](3466) gives control of [Macau](17171) to the [People's Republic of China](600).
- [December 21](10106), [1898](9995) - [Marie](47196) and [Pierre Curie](70876) announce their discovery of [radium](18437).
- [December 21](10106), [1913](7829) - The first [crossword](26380) puzzle is published.
- [December 21](10106), [1988](7552) - A terrorist [bomb](50504) explodes on [Pan Am Flight 103](346375) over Lockerbie, southern [Scotland](3049), killing 270 people.
- [December 21](10106), [2012](12277) - End of the Mayan long-count [calendar](7517).
- [December 22](6825), [1989](3967) - The [Brandenburg Gate](75802) is re-opened.
- [December 22](6825), [1990](8905) - Lech Walesa becomes [President](4044) of [Poland](3045).
- [December 23](5152), [1972](7473) - A major [earthquake](2081) strikes [Nicaragua](132619), killing thousands of people.
- [December 24](6826), [1818](17301) - The [Christmas](3317) carol [Silent Night](218578) is first performed at a church in [Austria](55).
- [December 24](6826), [1914](10113) - The [World War I](219834) Christmas truce takes place.
- [December 24](6826), [1951](9207) - [Libya](14617) becomes independent.
- [December 24](6826), [1968](8340) - [Apollo 8](323383) orbits the [Moon](107799), and a stunning photograph of the [Earth](219) rising is taken.
- [December 25](8745), [800](15189) - [Charlemagne](15452) is crowned [Holy Roman Emperor](6585).
- [December 25](8745), [1066](11672) - [William the Conqueror](5568) is crowned [King](410) of [England](3047) in [Westminster Abbey](14075).
- [December 26](10109), [1991](3963) - The USSR collapses.
- [December 26](10109), [2004](3796) - An [earthquake](2081) off [Sumatra](55351), [Indonesia](3334), leads to [tsunami](259144)s that kill over 300,000 people on [Indian Ocean](1978) coasts, with nearby Sumatra being worst affected.
- [December 27](10107), 531 - [Inauguration](140252) of the [Hagia Sophia](52410) as a [church](142) in what was then called [Byzantium](63578).
- [December 27](10107), [1949](7183) - Queen [Juliana of the Netherlands](181189) officially recognizes [Indonesia](3334)'s independence.
- [December 28](10111), [1612](34757) - [Galileo Galilei](4052) observes the planet Neptune, though there is dispute as to whether he mistook it for a star.
- [December 28](10111), [1879](4659) - The Tay Rail [Bridge](5010) disaster on the east coast of [Scotland](3049) kills 75 people.
- [December 28](10111), [1895](4657) - The Lumiere brothers open their first cinema in [Paris](4467).
- [December 29](10105), [1911](8732) - [Mongolia](17840) becomes independent.
- [December 30](7625), [1922](10008) - The USSR is founded.
- [December 30](7625), [2011](31950) - This date is skipped in [Samoa](10532) as the [International Date Line](63755) is shifted.
- [December 31](8744), [1857](9855) - [Ottawa](3838) is chosen as capital city of [Canada](219589).
- [December 31](8744), [1999](3955) - The [US](720016) hands control of the [Panama Canal](16544) over to [Panama](6431).
## Trivia
- The first [Sunday](3837) of [Advent](146054) is slightly more likely to fall in [November](530) than in December.
- The star signs for December are [Sagittarius](72098) ([November 22](10087) to [December 21](10106)) and Capricorn ([December 22](6825) to [January 20](9731)).
- [December 28](10111) falls exactly half-way between the two [Scottish](3049) celebrations of [Saint Andrew](5583)'s Day ([November 30](10092)) and [Burns Night](60879) ([January 25](5132)).
- In a [leap year](434), [December 31](8744) is the 366th day of the year, rather than the 365th.
- At the [North Pole](2028), the [Sun](44408) does not rise in December; at the [South Pole](1977), it does not set.
|
**December** (Dec.) is the twelfth and last month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between November (of the current year) and January (of the following year). It has 31 days. With the name of the month coming from the Latin _decem_ for "ten", it was the tenth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman calendar.
December always begins on the same day of the week as September, and ends on the same day of the week as April.
December's flower is the Narcissus. Its birthstone is the turquoise.
Some of the holidays celebrated in December are Christmas, New Year's Eve, Kwanzaa, and Hanukkah.
## The Month
December is the twelfth and last month of every calendar year in the Gregorian calendar, and is one of seven months of the year to have 31 days. December 31 is followed by January 1 of the following year.
December begins on the same day of the week as September every year, as each other's first days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart. December ends on the same day of the week as April every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In common years, December starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the previous year, and in leap years, October of the previous year. In common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, December both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, December starts on the same day of the week as June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and November of the following year. In years immediately before common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.
December is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is June, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that December 21 or December 22 is the Northern Winter Solstice and the Southern Summer Solstice. This means that this date would have the least daylight of any day in the Northern Hemisphere, and the most in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of darkness at the North Pole and 24 hours of daylight at the South Pole.
In mainly Christian countries, December is dominated by Christmas, which is celebrated on December 25 in most of those countries, though Eastern Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 7. It marks the birth of Jesus Christ. Epiphany, January 6, is also important in relation to Christmas. Advent starts on the Sunday on, or closest to, November 30, and some countries have their own related celebration before the 25th. Sinterklaas is celebrated on December 5 in the Netherlands and Belgium, and St. Nicholas Day on December 6 is also celebrated in some countries. The Scandinavian countries, mainly Sweden, celebrate St. Lucia Day on December 13, while Iceland celebrates Thorlaksmessa on December 23. The week after Christmas is spent preparing for New Year.
Judaism's festival of light, Hanukkah, is also celebrated over eight days in this month.
### Fixed dates
- December 1 - World AIDS Day
- December 1 - National Day of Romania
- December 1 - Self-government Day (Iceland)
- December 1 - Day of Restoration of Independence (Portugal)
- December 1 - First Day of Summer (Australia)
- December 2 - National Day of Laos
- December 2 - National Day of the United Arab Emirates
- December 2 - International Day for the Abolition of Slavery
- December 4 - Navy Day in India and Italy
- December 4 - Miners' Day (Poland)
- December 4 - Tupou I Day (Tonga)
- December 5 - Sinterklaas (Netherlands, Belgium)
- December 5 - Birthday of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand
- December 6 - Saint Nicholas Day
- December 6 - Independence Day (Finland)
- December 6 - Constitution Day (Spain)
- December 7 - St. Ambrose Day
- December 7 - Pearl Harbor Day (United States)
- December 8 - Constitution Day in Romania and Uzbekistan
- December 8 - Day of the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholicism)
- December 9 - National Day of Tanzania
- December 10 - Nobel Prize Day
- December 10 - Constitution Day (Thailand)
- December 10 - Human Rights Day
- December 11 - Republic Day (Burkina Faso)
- December 11 - Indiana Day
- December 11 - International Mountain Day
- December 12 - Independence Day (Kenya)
- December 12 - Our Lady of Guadalupe (Roman Catholicism)
- December 13 - St. Lucia Day
- December 14 - Alabama Day
- December 15 - Homecoming Day (Alderney)
- December 15 - Kingdom Day (Netherlands)
- December 15 - Zamenhof Day (Esperanto supporters)
- December 16 - Independence Day (Kazakhstan)
- December 16 - Day of Reconciliation (South Africa)
- December 16 - Victory Day in India and Bangladesh
- December 17 - National Day of Bhutan
- December 18 - National Day of Qatar
- December 18 - New Jersey Day
- December 18 - Republic Day (Niger)
- December 18 - International Migrants Day
- December 18 - United Nations Day of the Arabic language
- December 21/22 - Northern Winter Solstice and Southern Summer Solstice
- December 22 - Dongzhi Festival (East Asia)
- December 22 - Mother's Day (Indonesia)
- December 23 - Birthday of Emperor Akihito (Japan)
- December 23 - Thorlaksmessa/St. Thorlak's Day (Iceland)
- December 23 - HumanLight (Secular Humanism)
- December 24 - Independence Day (Libya)
- December 24 - Christmas Eve in Western Christianity
- December 25 - Christmas Day in Western Christianity
- December 25 - Birthday of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Pakistan)
- December 26 - Boxing Day (UK)
- December 26 - St. Stephen's Day (Republic of Ireland)
- December 26 - First Day of Kwanzaa
- December 27 - Constitution Day (North Korea)
- December 27 - St. Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church)
- December 28 - Proclamation Day (South Australia)
- December 28 - Day of the Holy Innocents, celebrated in Spanish-speaking countries in a similar way to April Fools' Day
- December 29 - Independence Day (Mongolia)
- December 31 - New Year's Eve/ St. Silvester's Day - known as Hogmanay in Scotland and Calennig in Wales
### Moveable and Non-Single Day Events
- Hanukkah (Judaism) - celebrated over a period of eight days
- Advent in Western Christianity
- First Sunday in Advent occurs between November 27 and December 3
- Second Sunday in Advent occurs between December 4 and December 10
- Third Sunday in Advent occurs between December 11 and December 17
- Fourth and final Sunday in Advent occurs between December 18 and December 24
- Kwanzaa is from December 26 to January 1
- Marathon races held in December
- Fukuoka, Japan
- Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
- Singapore
- Taipei, Taiwan
- Honolulu, Hawaii, United States
## Historical Events
- December 1, 1918 - The Kingdom of Yugoslavia is proclaimed. On the same day, Transylvania unites with Romania.
- December 1, 1918 - Iceland becomes independent, but remains under the Danish crown.
- December 1, 1955 - A protest by Rosa Parks on an Alabama bus starts the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
- December 2, 1804 - Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of France.
- December 2, 1942 - A team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first nuclear chain reaction.
- December 3, 1984 - A deadly chemical leak in Bhopal, India, kills 8,000 people instantly.
- December 5, 2013 - Former South African President and Anti-Apartheid icon Nelson Mandela dies aged 95.
- December 6, 1917 - Finland declares independence from Russia.
- December 7, 1941 - During World War II, The Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, US.
- December 8, 1980 - John Lennon is shot dead by Mark David Chapman.
- December 9, 1961 - Tanganyika becomes independent. It later merges with Zanzibar to form Tanzania.
- December 10, 1901 - The first Nobel Prizes are awarded.
- December 11, 1936 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom abdicates from the throne.
- December 12, 1911 - Delhi becomes the capital city of India.
- December 12, 1963 - Kenya becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- December 14, 1861 - Albert, Prince Consort of Great Britain and Ireland dies aged 42, placing Queen Victoria in a state of mourning his loss for the rest of her life.
- December 14, 1911 - A Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole, where previously no human had ever been.
- December 15, 1891 - James Naismith introduces basketball.
- December 16, 1920 - An earthquake in Gansu province, China, kills around 200,000 people.
- December 16, 1991 - Kazakhstan declares independence from the Soviet Union.
- December 17, 1903 - The Wright brothers make their first flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
- December 17, 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck becomes King of Bhutan.
- December 17, 2010 - Start of the Arab Spring, a series of uprisings across North Africa and the Middle East.
- December 19, 1783 - William Pitt the Younger becomes the youngest Prime Minister of Great Britain.
- December 20, 1999 - Portugal gives control of Macau to the People's Republic of China.
- December 21, 1898 - Marie and Pierre Curie announce their discovery of radium.
- December 21, 1913 - The first crossword puzzle is published.
- December 21, 1988 - A terrorist bomb explodes on Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, southern Scotland, killing 270 people.
- December 21, 2012 - End of the Mayan long-count calendar.
- December 22, 1989 - The Brandenburg Gate is re-opened.
- December 22, 1990 - Lech Walesa becomes President of Poland.
- December 23, 1972 - A major earthquake strikes Nicaragua, killing thousands of people.
- December 24, 1818 - The Christmas carol Silent Night is first performed at a church in Austria.
- December 24, 1914 - The World War I Christmas truce takes place.
- December 24, 1951 - Libya becomes independent.
- December 24, 1968 - Apollo 8 orbits the Moon, and a stunning photograph of the Earth rising is taken.
- December 25, 800 - Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
- December 25, 1066 - William the Conqueror is crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.
- December 26, 1991 - The USSR collapses.
- December 26, 2004 - An earthquake off Sumatra, Indonesia, leads to tsunamis that kill over 300,000 people on Indian Ocean coasts, with nearby Sumatra being worst affected.
- December 27, 531 - Inauguration of the Hagia Sophia as a church in what was then called Byzantium.
- December 27, 1949 - Queen Juliana of the Netherlands officially recognizes Indonesia's independence.
- December 28, 1612 - Galileo Galilei observes the planet Neptune, though there is dispute as to whether he mistook it for a star.
- December 28, 1879 - The Tay Rail Bridge disaster on the east coast of Scotland kills 75 people.
- December 28, 1895 - The Lumiere brothers open their first cinema in Paris.
- December 29, 1911 - Mongolia becomes independent.
- December 30, 1922 - The USSR is founded.
- December 30, 2011 - This date is skipped in Samoa as the International Date Line is shifted.
- December 31, 1857 - Ottawa is chosen as capital city of Canada.
- December 31, 1999 - The US hands control of the Panama Canal over to Panama.
## Trivia
- The first Sunday of Advent is slightly more likely to fall in November than in December.
- The star signs for December are Sagittarius (November 22 to December 21) and Capricorn (December 22 to January 20).
- December 28 falls exactly half-way between the two Scottish celebrations of Saint Andrew's Day (November 30) and Burns Night (January 25).
- In a leap year, December 31 is the 366th day of the year, rather than the 365th.
- At the North Pole, the Sun does not rise in December; at the South Pole, it does not set.
|
high
| false
| false
|
186
|
Dublin
|
**Dublin** () is the [capital city](1968) of the [Republic of Ireland](5074), and the biggest [city](144) on the [island](367) of [Ireland](361). In 2022, there were over 2.13 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area.
Dublin was built by the [Vikings](205979) upon the [river Liffey](297471). The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin.
Many famous [writer](15228)s lived in Dublin. [Oscar Wilde](11625) and [George Bernard Shaw](51109) were born in Dublin. [James Joyce](7722) is probably Dublin's best known and most [international](654586) writer.
Dublin is home to [Ireland](361)'s largest stadium for all sports, [Croke Park](265399). It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland [hurling](78339) and [football](78419) finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer.
## Other websites
- ["The Reflecting City"](http://reflectingcity.com/)
- [Dublin GDP stats](http://www.dubchamber.ie/Uploads/Policy.pdf)
- [WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia](http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=53330000&x=-6250000&z=11&l=1&m=a)
- [The Dublin Community Blog](http://www.dublinblog.ie)
- [Satellite map of Dublin](http://www.travelingluck.com/Europe/Ireland/Dublin/-1502554_Dublin.html) - Including local geographic features.
- [Dublin](http://www.viajardublin.com/) - Tourist information.
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Dublin
- **native name lang**: gai
- **settlement type**: Capital city, Capital of Ireland/City
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **image caption**: Clockwise, from top: Samuel Beckett Bridge, Trinity College, Dublin, Trinity College, The Custom House, Dublin Castle, O'Connell Bridge, Convention Centre Dublin, Convention Centre.
- **image flag**: IRL Dublin flag.svg
- **flag size**: 150px
- **image shield**: Coat-of-arms-of-Dublin.svg
- **shield size**: 100px
- **nickname**: The Fair City
- **motto**:
"The Obedience of the citizens produces a happy city"
- **mapsize**: 230px
- **map caption**: Location of Dublin in Ireland
- **pushpin map**: Ireland#Europe
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Republic of Ireland, Ireland
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of Ireland, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Leinster
- **government type**: Dublin City Council, City Council
- **leader title**: Headquarters
- **leader name**: City Hall, Dublin, Dublin City Hall
- **leader title1**: Lord Mayor of Dublin, Lord Mayor
- **leader name1**: Hazel Chu (Green Party (Ireland), Green Party)
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 318
- **area urban km2**: 318
- **population total**: 1,534,000
- **population density km2**: 4,811
- **population urban**: 1,534,000
- **population metro**: 1,347,359
- **population blank1 title**: Greater Dublin
- **population blank1**: 2,125,000
- **population blank2 title**: Ethnicity
<small>(2011 Census)</small>
- **population demonym**: Dubliner, Dub
- **postal code type**: Eircode
- **postal code**: D01 to D18, D20, D22, D24 & D6W
- **area code**: 01 (+3531)
- **blank name sec2**: GDP
- **blank info sec2**: American dollar, US$ 248.3 billion
- **blank1 name sec2**: GDP per capita
- **blank1 info sec2**: US$ 116,000
- **pushpin label**: Dublin
- **leader title2**: Dáil Éireann
- **leader name2**: Dublin Central (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin Central
Dublin Bay North (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin Bay North
Dublin North-West (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin North-West
Dublin South-Central (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin South-Central
Dublin Bay South (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin Bay South
- **leader title3**: European Parliament
- **leader name3**: Dublin (European Parliament constituency), Dublin constituency
- **timezone**: Western European Time, WET
- **utc offset**: 0
- **timezone dst**: Irish Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset dst**: +1
|
**Dublin** () is the capital city of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2022, there were over 2.13 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area.
Dublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin.
Many famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer.
Dublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer.
## Other websites
- "The Reflecting City"
- Dublin GDP stats
- WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia
- The Dublin Community Blog
- Satellite map of Dublin - Including local geographic features.
- Dublin - Tourist information.
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Dublin
- **native name lang**: gai
- **settlement type**: Capital city, Capital of Ireland/City
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **image caption**: Clockwise, from top: Samuel Beckett Bridge, Trinity College, Dublin, Trinity College, The Custom House, Dublin Castle, O'Connell Bridge, Convention Centre Dublin, Convention Centre.
- **image flag**: IRL Dublin flag.svg
- **flag size**: 150px
- **image shield**: Coat-of-arms-of-Dublin.svg
- **shield size**: 100px
- **nickname**: The Fair City
- **motto**:
"The Obedience of the citizens produces a happy city"
- **mapsize**: 230px
- **map caption**: Location of Dublin in Ireland
- **pushpin map**: Ireland#Europe
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Republic of Ireland, Ireland
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of Ireland, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Leinster
- **government type**: Dublin City Council, City Council
- **leader title**: Headquarters
- **leader name**: City Hall, Dublin, Dublin City Hall
- **leader title1**: Lord Mayor of Dublin, Lord Mayor
- **leader name1**: Hazel Chu (Green Party (Ireland), Green Party)
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 318
- **area urban km2**: 318
- **population total**: 1,534,000
- **population density km2**: 4,811
- **population urban**: 1,534,000
- **population metro**: 1,347,359
- **population blank1 title**: Greater Dublin
- **population blank1**: 2,125,000
- **population blank2 title**: Ethnicity
<small>(2011 Census)</small>
- **population demonym**: Dubliner, Dub
- **postal code type**: Eircode
- **postal code**: D01 to D18, D20, D22, D24 & D6W
- **area code**: 01 (+3531)
- **blank name sec2**: GDP
- **blank info sec2**: American dollar, US$ 248.3 billion
- **blank1 name sec2**: GDP per capita
- **blank1 info sec2**: US$ 116,000
- **pushpin label**: Dublin
- **leader title2**: Dáil Éireann
- **leader name2**: Dublin Central (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin Central
Dublin Bay North (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin Bay North
Dublin North-West (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin North-West
Dublin South-Central (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin South-Central
Dublin Bay South (Dáil Éireann constituency), Dublin Bay South
- **leader title3**: European Parliament
- **leader name3**: Dublin (European Parliament constituency), Dublin constituency
- **timezone**: Western European Time, WET
- **utc offset**: 0
- **timezone dst**: Irish Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset dst**: +1
|
high
| false
| false
|
187
|
Dance
|
**Dance** is a performing art. It is described in many ways. It is when people move to a musical [rhythm](32601). They may be alone, or in a group. The dance may be an informal [play](6257), a part of a [ritual](25603), or a part of a professional [performance](127547). There are many kinds of dances, and every human [society](689) has its own dances.
Dancing is not a sport, though it does have some athletic aspects. Dance is an art. Some people dance to express their feelings and [emotion](20124)s, or to feel better. Dance can be used to tell a story. In some societies, dance goes with [song](9460) as well as [music](472). Dancing is sometimes done as [sport](699) and has similar athletic aspects. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. It may take years of practice to become an experienced and capable dancer. Dancing is a good form of [exercise](3679) because it is more fun than most other forms. It is a good way to lose [weight](386754).
To plan a dance is called _[choreography](4529)_, done by a choreographer. Often this goes with music, and fits into a certain style. Dances may be planned in detail, or they may be whatever dancers feel like doing. However, most dancing does follow some general style or [pattern](60470). One style is the couple dance, where (usually) a man and a woman dance together. Other dances need an ensemble, a group of people together to make it work. Some styles of dance are lyrical, ballet, ballroom, tap, acrobatics, jazz, musical theater, contemporary, modern, hip hop, and western.
## History
People have always danced. Many cultures have their own dances. There are pictures, on [pottery](11616) and [stone](14449), which show dances from several thousand years ago, in [Egypt](248) and [Greece](2133).
Sachs divides early dances into 'Imageless dances' and 'Image dances'. By 'imageless dances' he meant dances which have no set form but aim at getting the dancers into a state of [ecstasy](169878). In this state the dancer(s) seem changed, in a [trance](413576), and are often thought of (by their society) as being 'possessed by [spirit](753)s'. These dances are done on certain occasions: marriage, war, famine, illness or death, and so on. They are found in all early ('primitive') societies.<sup>p49; 62</sup>
The 'image dances', according to Sachs, are to do with the world outside the dancer. By imitating an animal or object, the dancer believes he can capture a power and make it useful. To dance in imitation of the animal which is going to be hunted is to become one with them. To imitate the act of [sex](3856) is to achieve [fertility](69794). This is the kind of thinking behind an image dance. Sachs points out that societies of this kind do not really understand the connection between [cause and effect](117569). They really believe the image dances work. The dance type which is used in image dances is [mime](17363).<sup>p49; 77</sup>
The two styles of dance may be joined. Fertility dances may involve both ecstatic states and mime. The great dancer Nijinsky used some of these ideas in his [choreography](4529) for the [ballet](33552) _Le Sacre du Printemps_ (The Rite of Spring), a ballet about the sacrifice of a girl during a primitive celebration of Spring.
In more recent times, the first dance school we know about was opened in 1661 in [Paris](4467). Only men were accepted until 1681. After 1681, women were accepted too. [Ballroom dance](38263)s are forms of [modern dance](186406). Ballroom dances such as the [waltz](255154) are done by couples.
Until the 20th century, most ballroom dances were [sequence dance](254707)s. The way people moved was planned in set formation. These formations were usually lines or squares. Everyone moved at the same time and finished at the same time. The music played for a set time, and then stopped. After the invention of the [waltz](255154), around 1800, another style of dancing developed. In the waltz, and later dances, people danced in couples, but they did so separately. They did not dance in formation but moved round the room as they pleased (but anticlockwise). Often, new dance styles arrive. Some dance as individuals, separately, as they please. [Street dance](186143) is like that. All these types of dances have music.
At the same time, round the world there are many traditional dances. Some of them have been going for hundreds of years. We call them [folkloric](68251) dances.
The coming of popular [music video](9348)s and [DVD](7613)s led to a kind of dancer previously seen in some [stage](40656) shows. A **backup dancer** (or background dancer) is a performer who dances with or behind the lead performers in a live musical act or in a music video.
## Styles
There are many different styles of dance, which fall into these general types:
- Classic dance
- Professional dancing
- [Ballet](33552)
- [Modern dance](186406)
- [Theatre dance](819)
- Belly dancing
- [Jazz dance](543440)
- [Tap dance](339756)
- Social dancing
- Ballroom dancing (International style)
- [Waltz](255154)
- [Foxtrot](254480)
- [Tango](64140)
- [Quickstep](255145)
- [Viennese waltz](37256)
- [Cha-cha-cha](205158)
- [Jive](255547)
- [Paso doble](254739)
- [Samba](6472)
- [Rumba](256179)
- Other styles
- [Salsa](68412)
- [Rock and Roll](12945)
- [Street dance](186143)
- Breakdancing
- [Funk](20116)
- [Hip hop](9364)
- Folk dance
- [Irish Dance](40641)
- [Morris Dance](792971)
- Country Dance
- Indian Classical Dances
- Bharat Natyam
- [Kathak](814453)
- Mohini Attam
- Kathakali
- Kuchipudi
## Professional dancers
- [Alvin Ailey](599875)
- [George Balanchine](305087)
- [Vernon and Irene Castle](254583)
- [Misty Copeland](505633)
- [Katherine Dunham](889345)
- [Bob Fosse](569477)
- [Loie Fuller](377235)
- [Gene Kelly](64961)
- [Vaslav Nijinsky](263050)
- [Margot Fonteyn](305235)
- [Monsieur Pierre](255260)
- Antonio Ruiz Soler
|
**Dance** is a performing art. It is described in many ways. It is when people move to a musical rhythm. They may be alone, or in a group. The dance may be an informal play, a part of a ritual, or a part of a professional performance. There are many kinds of dances, and every human society has its own dances.
Dancing is not a sport, though it does have some athletic aspects. Dance is an art. Some people dance to express their feelings and emotions, or to feel better. Dance can be used to tell a story. In some societies, dance goes with song as well as music. Dancing is sometimes done as sport and has similar athletic aspects. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. It may take years of practice to become an experienced and capable dancer. Dancing is a good form of exercise because it is more fun than most other forms. It is a good way to lose weight.
To plan a dance is called _choreography_, done by a choreographer. Often this goes with music, and fits into a certain style. Dances may be planned in detail, or they may be whatever dancers feel like doing. However, most dancing does follow some general style or pattern. One style is the couple dance, where (usually) a man and a woman dance together. Other dances need an ensemble, a group of people together to make it work. Some styles of dance are lyrical, ballet, ballroom, tap, acrobatics, jazz, musical theater, contemporary, modern, hip hop, and western.
## History
People have always danced. Many cultures have their own dances. There are pictures, on pottery and stone, which show dances from several thousand years ago, in Egypt and Greece.
Sachs divides early dances into 'Imageless dances' and 'Image dances'. By 'imageless dances' he meant dances which have no set form but aim at getting the dancers into a state of ecstasy. In this state the dancer(s) seem changed, in a trance, and are often thought of (by their society) as being 'possessed by spirits'. These dances are done on certain occasions: marriage, war, famine, illness or death, and so on. They are found in all early ('primitive') societies.<sup>p49; 62</sup>
The 'image dances', according to Sachs, are to do with the world outside the dancer. By imitating an animal or object, the dancer believes he can capture a power and make it useful. To dance in imitation of the animal which is going to be hunted is to become one with them. To imitate the act of sex is to achieve fertility. This is the kind of thinking behind an image dance. Sachs points out that societies of this kind do not really understand the connection between cause and effect. They really believe the image dances work. The dance type which is used in image dances is mime.<sup>p49; 77</sup>
The two styles of dance may be joined. Fertility dances may involve both ecstatic states and mime. The great dancer Nijinsky used some of these ideas in his choreography for the ballet _Le Sacre du Printemps_ (The Rite of Spring), a ballet about the sacrifice of a girl during a primitive celebration of Spring.
In more recent times, the first dance school we know about was opened in 1661 in Paris. Only men were accepted until 1681. After 1681, women were accepted too. Ballroom dances are forms of modern dance. Ballroom dances such as the waltz are done by couples.
Until the 20th century, most ballroom dances were sequence dances. The way people moved was planned in set formation. These formations were usually lines or squares. Everyone moved at the same time and finished at the same time. The music played for a set time, and then stopped. After the invention of the waltz, around 1800, another style of dancing developed. In the waltz, and later dances, people danced in couples, but they did so separately. They did not dance in formation but moved round the room as they pleased (but anticlockwise). Often, new dance styles arrive. Some dance as individuals, separately, as they please. Street dance is like that. All these types of dances have music.
At the same time, round the world there are many traditional dances. Some of them have been going for hundreds of years. We call them folkloric dances.
The coming of popular music videos and DVDs led to a kind of dancer previously seen in some stage shows. A **backup dancer** (or background dancer) is a performer who dances with or behind the lead performers in a live musical act or in a music video.
## Styles
There are many different styles of dance, which fall into these general types:
- Classic dance
- Professional dancing
- Ballet
- Modern dance
- Theatre dance
- Belly dancing
- Jazz dance
- Tap dance
- Social dancing
- Ballroom dancing (International style)
- Waltz
- Foxtrot
- Tango
- Quickstep
- Viennese waltz
- Cha-cha-cha
- Jive
- Paso doble
- Samba
- Rumba
- Other styles
- Salsa
- Rock and Roll
- Street dance
- Breakdancing
- Funk
- Hip hop
- Folk dance
- Irish Dance
- Morris Dance
- Country Dance
- Indian Classical Dances
- Bharat Natyam
- Kathak
- Mohini Attam
- Kathakali
- Kuchipudi
## Professional dancers
- Alvin Ailey
- George Balanchine
- Vernon and Irene Castle
- Misty Copeland
- Katherine Dunham
- Bob Fosse
- Loie Fuller
- Gene Kelly
- Vaslav Nijinsky
- Margot Fonteyn
- Monsieur Pierre
- Antonio Ruiz Soler
|
medium
| false
| false
|
188
|
Dissolution of the monasteries
|
The **dissolution of the monasteries** was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when [English](3047) King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.
This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the [Church of England](28053) (which is a type of [Christianity](219595)). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the [Protestant Reformation](25730) in England.
|
The **dissolution of the monasteries** was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.
This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
190
|
Deadline
|
A **deadline** is a [time](3219) by which some task must be completed.
Very often, it means a [time limit](828) that is set in place by an [authority](8463) - for example, a [teacher](20316) tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her [principal](2914) that every [student](7433) had the same chance to do the work.
Deadlines may also be set by a [time horizon](827) that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of [nature](547). For example, by [sunset](27347) one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.
A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the [physical](50759) [horizon](45935) where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things.
|
A **deadline** is a time by which some task must be completed.
Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work.
Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature. For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.
A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
191
|
Dutton's Speedwords
|
**Dutton Speedwords** is a [made-up language](36705) written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The [idea](18603) of **Dutton Speedwords** is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. **Dutton Speedwords** can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a [shorthand](41344) writing system – this means you can use it to write quickly.
The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called _International Symbolic Script_. A year later, it was called _Speedwords_. It was changed in 1946 and 1951.
It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.
The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.
Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.
The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language.
## Other websites
- [overview of Speedwords](http://www2.cmp.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang.dir/Speedwords.overview) by Richard K Harrison 1994
## Infobox (writing system)
- **name**: Dutton Speedwords
- **type**: shorthand
- **shform**: printed
- **typedesc**: and auxiliary language
- **creator**: Reginald J. G. Dutton
- **date**: 1922
- **published**: 1935, 1946, 1951, 1971
- **fam1**: Latin (script), Latin
- **note**: none
|
**Dutton Speedwords** is a made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of **Dutton Speedwords** is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. **Dutton Speedwords** can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system – this means you can use it to write quickly.
The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called _International Symbolic Script_. A year later, it was called _Speedwords_. It was changed in 1946 and 1951.
It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.
The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.
Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.
The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language.
## Other websites
- overview of Speedwords by Richard K Harrison 1994
## Infobox (writing system)
- **name**: Dutton Speedwords
- **type**: shorthand
- **shform**: printed
- **typedesc**: and auxiliary language
- **creator**: Reginald J. G. Dutton
- **date**: 1922
- **published**: 1935, 1946, 1951, 1971
- **fam1**: Latin (script), Latin
- **note**: none
|
low
| false
| false
|
195
|
Devil
|
In some [religion](653)s and [mythology](3356), the **Devil** (also called the **God of Darkness** or **Dark God**) is an [evil](7733) [spirit](753), [deity](20464), [demon](47033), or other [supernatural](752) being that tries to create problems for people and distance them from [God](305). In some cultures, the Devil is seen as the embodiment of evil. He is often depicted with red [skin](772), [horns](43954), and a [tail](29367).
Some people also use the word "[Satan](16564)" for the most powerful devil.
## Etymology
The word "devil" comes from the [Greek](4606) word "diabolos", which means "someone who tells lies to hurt you". ("Diabolos" is translated to the [English](2843) word "slanderer.") The [New Testament](11265) uses "diabolos" as a title for [Satan](16564), so "the Devil" became another name for Satan in English.
The [Old Testament](11272) talks about the **Serpent** and **Satan the Evil One**, who may be two different characters. "Satan" in [Hebrew](14175) means "adversary", which is a word for an enemy or opponent. Shaitan is also a word used for the Devil in the Koran, who often appears as an animal and tries to get people to do the wrong thing.
### Christianity
According to the [Christian](219595) [Bible](2866), the Devil wanted to be a deity who was independent from God. Therefore, a war in heaven started and the angels battled. The Devil lost the battle and was thrown out of [heaven](13971). Then he started doing bad things on [Earth](219), and wanted people to worship him instead of God. Sometimes he tries to trick people by giving them false promises.
The other angels who were thrown out of heaven became evil spirits called [demon](47033)s. They obey the Devil and help him do evil things.
The [Book of Revelation](101481) says that God will someday punish the Devil and his demons by throwing them into a Lake of Fire that burns in [Hell](4923).
Some Christians understand the Devil as the embodiment of chaos and death. They think that the Devil is the farthest someone can get away from God. God, as the opposite of the Devil, stands for life and the Devil for death. The closer someone gets to the Devil the closer people come to death and will not be [resurrected](4072).
### Islam
In [Islam](219592) there are several devils, who support [Satan](16564). The devils are invisible and tempt humans and djinns into [sin](3639). Humans and djinns who obey the devil are called devils too.
### Other cultures and religions
Not all religions believe in the Devil. For example, some forms of [Buddhism](3496) do not believe in the Devil. Satan exists in[Judaism](219593), but [Jews](39429) believe Satan is just an [angel](33), not the Devil.
[Wicca](18118) rejects the concept of the Devil and [demon](47033)s, because in Wiccan tradition, the creative energy is neither positive nor negative. According to Wiccans: "We are the ones who use this energy for good or evil. Therefore, the consequence of this action is our entire responsibility, not of an evil [supernatural](752) being."
The god _[Cernunnos](194150)_ in Wicca has been confused with the Christian Devil because it has horns. In [antiquity](26891), because the horns were [phallic](123168), they were associated with virility ([fertility](69794)). Soon they were [symbols](683) of ancient [European](216) religions. He was already worshipped by [pagan](21132) religions before Christianity arrived in Europe and the [British Isles](5401).
Many [satanists](19013) believe in the Devil or Satan only as a [metaphor](510), not an actual being or person.
In the [Bahá'í Faith](18576), the Devil as a malevolent, [supernatural](752) entity is not believed to exist. These terms do, however, appear in the Bahá'í writings, where they are instead used as metaphors for the lower nature of [man](5504).
## Arts
Artists draw pictures of the Devil that show him as [ugly](58639) and evil. However, in the Bible, no description of Satan is ever given.
Believers in the Devil say he is usually a spirit that nobody can see, though he can make himself look like a human in order to trick people. Many modern depictions of the Devil portray him as a red human-like being with [horns](43954) and a pointed [tail](29367), carrying a red [pitchfork](383473) or [trident](560280).
|
In some religions and mythology, the **Devil** (also called the **God of Darkness** or **Dark God**) is an evil spirit, deity, demon, or other supernatural being that tries to create problems for people and distance them from God. In some cultures, the Devil is seen as the embodiment of evil. He is often depicted with red skin, horns, and a tail.
Some people also use the word "Satan" for the most powerful devil.
## Etymology
The word "devil" comes from the Greek word "diabolos", which means "someone who tells lies to hurt you". ("Diabolos" is translated to the English word "slanderer.") The New Testament uses "diabolos" as a title for Satan, so "the Devil" became another name for Satan in English.
The Old Testament talks about the **Serpent** and **Satan the Evil One**, who may be two different characters. "Satan" in Hebrew means "adversary", which is a word for an enemy or opponent. Shaitan is also a word used for the Devil in the Koran, who often appears as an animal and tries to get people to do the wrong thing.
### Christianity
According to the Christian Bible, the Devil wanted to be a deity who was independent from God. Therefore, a war in heaven started and the angels battled. The Devil lost the battle and was thrown out of heaven. Then he started doing bad things on Earth, and wanted people to worship him instead of God. Sometimes he tries to trick people by giving them false promises.
The other angels who were thrown out of heaven became evil spirits called demons. They obey the Devil and help him do evil things.
The Book of Revelation says that God will someday punish the Devil and his demons by throwing them into a Lake of Fire that burns in Hell.
Some Christians understand the Devil as the embodiment of chaos and death. They think that the Devil is the farthest someone can get away from God. God, as the opposite of the Devil, stands for life and the Devil for death. The closer someone gets to the Devil the closer people come to death and will not be resurrected.
### Islam
In Islam there are several devils, who support Satan. The devils are invisible and tempt humans and djinns into sin. Humans and djinns who obey the devil are called devils too.
### Other cultures and religions
Not all religions believe in the Devil. For example, some forms of Buddhism do not believe in the Devil. Satan exists inJudaism, but Jews believe Satan is just an angel, not the Devil.
Wicca rejects the concept of the Devil and demons, because in Wiccan tradition, the creative energy is neither positive nor negative. According to Wiccans: "We are the ones who use this energy for good or evil. Therefore, the consequence of this action is our entire responsibility, not of an evil supernatural being."
The god _Cernunnos_ in Wicca has been confused with the Christian Devil because it has horns. In antiquity, because the horns were phallic, they were associated with virility (fertility). Soon they were symbols of ancient European religions. He was already worshipped by pagan religions before Christianity arrived in Europe and the British Isles.
Many satanists believe in the Devil or Satan only as a metaphor, not an actual being or person.
In the Bahá'í Faith, the Devil as a malevolent, supernatural entity is not believed to exist. These terms do, however, appear in the Bahá'í writings, where they are instead used as metaphors for the lower nature of man.
## Arts
Artists draw pictures of the Devil that show him as ugly and evil. However, in the Bible, no description of Satan is ever given.
Believers in the Devil say he is usually a spirit that nobody can see, though he can make himself look like a human in order to trick people. Many modern depictions of the Devil portray him as a red human-like being with horns and a pointed tail, carrying a red pitchfork or trident.
|
high
| false
| false
|
196
|
Diarrhea
|
**Diarrhea** (DIE-uh-REE-uh), also spelled **diarrhoea**, happens when the body makes more watery [feces](7158) than normal. Diarrhea can occur in humans as well as most other mammals.
## Causes
Diarrhea is not a [disease](4874). But it may be a [symptom](13519) of a disease. The most common causes of diarrhea are:
- [Virus](5757)es, like Norovirus (the most common cause of viral [gastroenteritis](67047)—"stomach flu"—in humans)
- [Bacteria](10861), like _[E. coli](48205)_ or _[C. diff](274538)_
- Some [medicines](29891), especially [antibiotics](15596)
- [Food poisoning](253540)
- [Lactose intolerance](277567)
- [Artificial sweetener](70779)s, like sorbitol and mannitol, which are in many sugar-free food products like sugarless gum
- Other problems with the [intestine](15908)s, like [Crohn's disease](17670) and irritable bowel syndrome
## Child death
In developing nations, diarrheal diseases are the second most common cause of [death](209) in children under age 5. Every year in the world, diarrhea kills around 760,000 children under age 5.
In developing countries, diarrhea is also one of the most common causes of [malnutrition](30782) in children under age 5.
When children die from diarrhea, the cause is often [dehydration](33094) (losing too much water from the body). Because diarrhea is watery, it takes away a lot of the water. It also takes away [electrolyte](258098)s—important salts that the body needs to survive. Dehydration is extra dangerous for small children because they have less water in their bodies to begin with. This means they cannot lose as much water as adults before they start to have serious health problems.
### Causes
In developing countries, diarrhea is usually caused by an [infection](9998) in the [intestine](15908)s. These infections can be caused by [bacteria](10861), [virus](5757)es, or [parasites](30270). These infections spread easily in some developing countries because of the following reasons:
- Unsafe drinking water. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites often get into the water, which people then have to drink. Anyone who drinks the water can then get an infection that causes diarrhea.
- [Sanitation](481430), with clean toilets, is often not available. This makes it easier for infections to spread.
- Clean water and soap for washing hands are often not available, either. If people cannot wash their hands, bacteria, viruses, or parasites can stay on their hands. These microbes can then enter the mouth or get spread to other people with handshaking.
### Preventing child deaths
Child deaths from diarrhea can be prevented in different ways.
#### Re-hydration
When a child is sick with diarrhea, the best way to keep them from dying is to rehydrate them (give them the water and electrolytes (salts) they are losing by having diarrhea). If the child can go to a [clinic](92033) or [hospital](9584), this can be done by giving water and salts [intravenously](532261) (through a [needle](6607) placed into a [vein](25792)).
If the child cannot go to a clinic or hospital, oral rehydration solution can be used. ("Oral" means "given by mouth"; a "solution" is a mixture.) Oral rehydration solution is a mixture of the most important things the body loses when it is dehydrated. These things are clean water, [salt](6640), and [sugar](19831). Some oral rehydration solutions have extra electrolytes, like [potassium](14051), in them also.
Some oral rehydration solutions come in packets and just need to be mixed with clean water. Oral rehydration solution can also be made at home. If the water in the area is not safe, it can be [boiled](53680) to make it safe. (Boiling the water will kill any bacteria, viruses, or parasites in the water.) Salt and sugar are then mixed into the water. Drinking this mixture, after the water cools, will re-hydrate the child, if he drinks enough. Adding a [banana](3715) or [orange juice](403976) can add potassium to the mixture.
[Breast milk](135414) will also re-hydrate a child with diarrhea.
#### Preventing diarrhea
There are some ways to prevent diarrhea, or the spread of diseases that cause diarrhea. However, some of these ways are expensive and difficult to do. These include:
- Making drinking water safe
- Making sanitation better
- Making clean water and soap available for hand washing
## Related pages
- [Feces](7158)
- [Bristol stool scale](618068)
## Infobox (medical condition)
- **name**: Frequent bowel movement and gastroenterolgy
- **image**: Gastroenteritis_viruses.jpg
- **caption**: Gastroenteritis shown above
|
**Diarrhea** (DIE-uh-REE-uh), also spelled **diarrhoea**, happens when the body makes more watery feces than normal. Diarrhea can occur in humans as well as most other mammals.
## Causes
Diarrhea is not a disease. But it may be a symptom of a disease. The most common causes of diarrhea are:
- Viruses, like Norovirus (the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis—"stomach flu"—in humans)
- Bacteria, like _E. coli_ or _C. diff_
- Some medicines, especially antibiotics
- Food poisoning
- Lactose intolerance
- Artificial sweeteners, like sorbitol and mannitol, which are in many sugar-free food products like sugarless gum
- Other problems with the intestines, like Crohn's disease and irritable bowel syndrome
## Child death
In developing nations, diarrheal diseases are the second most common cause of death in children under age 5. Every year in the world, diarrhea kills around 760,000 children under age 5.
In developing countries, diarrhea is also one of the most common causes of malnutrition in children under age 5.
When children die from diarrhea, the cause is often dehydration (losing too much water from the body). Because diarrhea is watery, it takes away a lot of the water. It also takes away electrolytes—important salts that the body needs to survive. Dehydration is extra dangerous for small children because they have less water in their bodies to begin with. This means they cannot lose as much water as adults before they start to have serious health problems.
### Causes
In developing countries, diarrhea is usually caused by an infection in the intestines. These infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These infections spread easily in some developing countries because of the following reasons:
- Unsafe drinking water. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites often get into the water, which people then have to drink. Anyone who drinks the water can then get an infection that causes diarrhea.
- Sanitation, with clean toilets, is often not available. This makes it easier for infections to spread.
- Clean water and soap for washing hands are often not available, either. If people cannot wash their hands, bacteria, viruses, or parasites can stay on their hands. These microbes can then enter the mouth or get spread to other people with handshaking.
### Preventing child deaths
Child deaths from diarrhea can be prevented in different ways.
#### Re-hydration
When a child is sick with diarrhea, the best way to keep them from dying is to rehydrate them (give them the water and electrolytes (salts) they are losing by having diarrhea). If the child can go to a clinic or hospital, this can be done by giving water and salts intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein).
If the child cannot go to a clinic or hospital, oral rehydration solution can be used. ("Oral" means "given by mouth"; a "solution" is a mixture.) Oral rehydration solution is a mixture of the most important things the body loses when it is dehydrated. These things are clean water, salt, and sugar. Some oral rehydration solutions have extra electrolytes, like potassium, in them also.
Some oral rehydration solutions come in packets and just need to be mixed with clean water. Oral rehydration solution can also be made at home. If the water in the area is not safe, it can be boiled to make it safe. (Boiling the water will kill any bacteria, viruses, or parasites in the water.) Salt and sugar are then mixed into the water. Drinking this mixture, after the water cools, will re-hydrate the child, if he drinks enough. Adding a banana or orange juice can add potassium to the mixture.
Breast milk will also re-hydrate a child with diarrhea.
#### Preventing diarrhea
There are some ways to prevent diarrhea, or the spread of diseases that cause diarrhea. However, some of these ways are expensive and difficult to do. These include:
- Making drinking water safe
- Making sanitation better
- Making clean water and soap available for hand washing
## Related pages
- Feces
- Bristol stool scale
## Infobox (medical condition)
- **name**: Frequent bowel movement and gastroenterolgy
- **image**: Gastroenteritis_viruses.jpg
- **caption**: Gastroenteritis shown above
|
high
| false
| false
|
199
|
Dimension
|
**Dimensions** are the way we see, measure and [experience](40356) our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and [cold](12570), how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from [mathematics](467) and [physics](591). One way to define a dimension is to look at the [degrees of freedom](587876), or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts.
In a [vector space](41814) (with [vectors](3662) being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of , also written as , is equal to the [cardinality](66847) (or number of vectors) of a [basis](41815) of (a set which indicates how many unique directions actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called [length](7954), [width](937) and [depth](204). Mathematicians call this concept [Euclidean space](477463).
Dimensions can be used to measure [position](5506) too. The [distance](203) to a position from a [start](305662)ing place can be measured in the length, width and height [direction](5547)s. These distances are a measure of the position.
In some occasions, a fourth ([4D](317893)) dimension, [time](3219), is used to show the [position](5506) of an [event](26349) in [time](3219) and [space](87050).
## Other Dimensions
In modern [science](700), people use other dimensions. Dimensions like [temperature](6329) and [weight](7956) can be used to show the position of something in less simple [spaces](87050). Scientist study those dimensions with [dimensional analysis](429738).
[Mathematician](14844)s also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the [world](6369). The [rule](12655)s for doing [arithmetic](21) with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.
## Dimensions and vectors
[Vector](3662)s are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in [engineering](2816) and [science](700), and sometimes in [mathematics](467).
A vector is a list of [number](528)s. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.
For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:
1. Sally's distance north of Jane
1. Sally's distance east of Jane
1. Sally's height above Jane
## Related pages
- [3D](7126)
- [4D](317893)
- [Hypercube](124508), generalization of [square](4642) and [cube](180) beyond three dimensions
- [Minkowski spacetime](369480), a four-dimensional [manifold](41472)
- Space-time
|
**Dimensions** are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts.
In a vector space (with vectors being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of , also written as , is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of (a set which indicates how many unique directions actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space.
Dimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position.
In some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space.
## Other Dimensions
In modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimensions with dimensional analysis.
Mathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.
## Dimensions and vectors
Vectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics.
A vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.
For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:
1. Sally's distance north of Jane
1. Sally's distance east of Jane
1. Sally's height above Jane
## Related pages
- 3D
- 4D
- Hypercube, generalization of square and cube beyond three dimensions
- Minkowski spacetime, a four-dimensional manifold
- Space-time
|
medium
| false
| false
|
203
|
Distance
|
**Distance** is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his [position](5506) has not changed.
In [geometry](315), the distance between two points _A_ and _B_ is sometimes written as . [Pythagorean theorem](6327) is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a [scalar](3660), and thus is different from [displacement](73281). Displacement is a [vector](3662) that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance.
## Examples
- One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet.
- John walks at a [speed](791) of 6 [kilometre](417)s per [hour](3455) for one hour. John [walk](45934)s a distance of 6 kilometres.
- A [circle](175) is a [curve](41451)d [line](4373). Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle.
## Related pages
- [Euclidean distance](585801)
- [Norm (mathematics)](333992)
|
**Distance** is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed.
In geometry, the distance between two points _A_ and _B_ is sometimes written as . Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement. Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance.
## Examples
- One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet.
- John walks at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour for one hour. John walks a distance of 6 kilometres.
- A circle is a curved line. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle.
## Related pages
- Euclidean distance
- Norm (mathematics)
|
high
| false
| false
|
204
|
Depth
|
In [math](448), the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an object is its **depth**.
For example, the depth of a [box](5102) can be measured. When the [distance](203) between one end of the box and another end of the box is found, the box's depth was measured.
## Depth in Liquids
For liquids, the distance between the top or [surface](20962) of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.
For example, [water](939) is a liquid. If a [container](1988) is filled with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth. If the depth is big, the water is **deep**.
## Related pages
- [Volume](895)
- [Geometry](315)
- [Width](937)
- [Height](348)
- [Length](7954)
|
In math, the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an object is its **depth**.
For example, the depth of a box can be measured. When the distance between one end of the box and another end of the box is found, the box's depth was measured.
## Depth in Liquids
For liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.
For example, water is a liquid. If a container is filled with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth. If the depth is big, the water is **deep**.
## Related pages
- Volume
- Geometry
- Width
- Height
- Length
|
high
| false
| false
|
206
|
Dictionary
|
A **dictionary** is a type of [book](3686) which explains the meanings of [word](911)s or, more precisely, [lexeme](217598)s. The words are arranged in [alphabetical order](39804) so that they can be found quickly. The word "dictionary" comes from the [Latin](6592) "dictio" ("saying").
There are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which [translate](4782) words from one [language](419) to another, dictionaries of [biography](7886) which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular [subject](13464) (sometimes called a [thesaurus](30164)). Some of these come close to being an [encyclopedia](217), but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things ([knowledge](411)) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary.
### Online dictionaries
- [TheFreeDictionary](http://www.thefreedictionary.com)
- [Longman English Dictionary Online](http://www.ldoceonline.com)
Dictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear "definition" of the word (e.g. ***hippopotamus*** : a [hoof](97609)ed [mammal](525) with thick [skin](772), large [mouth](13833) and short [leg](3033)s that lives in [river](673)s and [lake](4031)s of [Africa](1942).)
A big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is [pronounced](95605). Usually the [International Phonetic Alphabet](52427) is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like "hippopotamus", but a word like "put" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the [origin of the word](15556) (e.g. Greek "hippos" horse and "potamus" river).
A dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, [plural](2029) form etc.
## Dictionaries which translate into foreign languages
There are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to [Dutch](5843) and the other half from Dutch to English.
When using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like "right" has two basic meanings in English: 1) "correct", and 2) the opposite of "left". Other languages have different words for these different meanings, but they have [homonym](2913)s of their own. A word like "put" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word “put” will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard).
## Updating dictionaries
Dictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of [computer](112) terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. "gay" or "cool"). In this sense, the most famous English Dictionary is the [Oxford English Dictionary](185034) (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a [subscription](183081)).
## Related pages
- [Wiktionary](926)
## Relevant literature
- Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.): _Manual of Specialised Lexicography_. Benjamins 1995.
- Sandro Nielsen: _The Bilingual LSP Dictionary_. Gunter Narr 1994.
## Other websites
- [Centre for Lexicography](http://www.asb.dk/en/research/researchcentresandteams/researchcentres/centreforlexicography/)
- Dictionary -Citizendium
- [Oxford English Dictionary](http://www.oed.com/)
- [Oxford Learner's Dictionary](http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com)
- [Cambridge Learner's Dictionary (British English)](http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/learner-english)
- [Macmillan Dictionary](http://www.macmillandictionary.com)
- [Collins Cobuild English Dictionary](http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english)
- [American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language](https://ahdictionary.com/)
- [Merriam-Webster American English dictionary](http://www.m-w.com/)
- [Merriam-Webster Learner's Dictionary](http://learnersdictionary.com)
- [Learn These Words First: Multi-Layer Dictionary](http://learnthesewordsfirst.com)
- [SimpleVocab Multi-word Dictionary](http://www.simplevocab.com)
- [English to English Dictionary](http://www.definitions.ws/)
- [Terms Dictionary - English to Multi-Lang Dictionary](https://termsdictionary.com/)
|
A **dictionary** is a type of book which explains the meanings of words or, more precisely, lexemes. The words are arranged in alphabetical order so that they can be found quickly. The word "dictionary" comes from the Latin "dictio" ("saying").
There are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one language to another, dictionaries of biography which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular subject (sometimes called a thesaurus). Some of these come close to being an encyclopedia, but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary.
### Online dictionaries
- TheFreeDictionary
- Longman English Dictionary Online
Dictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear "definition" of the word (e.g. ***hippopotamus*** : a hoofed mammal with thick skin, large mouth and short legs that lives in rivers and lakes of Africa.)
A big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is pronounced. Usually the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like "hippopotamus", but a word like "put" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the origin of the word (e.g. Greek "hippos" horse and "potamus" river).
A dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, plural form etc.
## Dictionaries which translate into foreign languages
There are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to Dutch and the other half from Dutch to English.
When using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like "right" has two basic meanings in English: 1) "correct", and 2) the opposite of "left". Other languages have different words for these different meanings, but they have homonyms of their own. A word like "put" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word “put” will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard).
## Updating dictionaries
Dictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of computer terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. "gay" or "cool"). In this sense, the most famous English Dictionary is the Oxford English Dictionary (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription).
## Related pages
- Wiktionary
## Relevant literature
- Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.): _Manual of Specialised Lexicography_. Benjamins 1995.
- Sandro Nielsen: _The Bilingual LSP Dictionary_. Gunter Narr 1994.
## Other websites
- Centre for Lexicography
- Dictionary -Citizendium
- Oxford English Dictionary
- Oxford Learner's Dictionary
- Cambridge Learner's Dictionary (British English)
- Macmillan Dictionary
- Collins Cobuild English Dictionary
- American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
- Merriam-Webster American English dictionary
- Merriam-Webster Learner's Dictionary
- Learn These Words First: Multi-Layer Dictionary
- SimpleVocab Multi-word Dictionary
- English to English Dictionary
- Terms Dictionary - English to Multi-Lang Dictionary
|
high
| false
| false
|
207
|
Definition
|
A **definition** in [language](419) explains what a [word](911) or [phrase](3825) means. _Defining_ means giving a definition.
Other words with this meaning are _description_ and _[explanation](382387)_. They describe what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.
In [mathematics](467), a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a [mathematical proof](92898).
|
A **definition** in language explains what a word or phrase means. _Defining_ means giving a definition.
Other words with this meaning are _description_ and _explanation_. They describe what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.
In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof.
|
high
| false
| false
|
208
|
Denmark
|
**Denmark** (), officially named the **Kingdom of Denmark**, is a [Nordic country](50198) in [Northern Europe](45217). It is the furthest south of the [Scandinavia](9141)n countries, to the northeast of [North America](557), to the south of Norway and south-west of Sweden (which it is connected to by a bridge). It has a south border with [Germany](219828) and a northeast border with [Canada](219589). It borders the Arctic Ocean, to the north-northwest, the [Atlantic Ocean](1936) to the northeast, [North Sea](6308) to the west and the [Baltic Sea](9140) to the east. Denmark is a [developed country](192128) with a large [welfare state](9523); In 2006 and 2007, surveys ranked Denmark as "the happiest place in the world", based on standards of health, [welfare](308544), and [education](2113).
The origin of the name Denmark () is uncertain. In [Old Norse](124235), the country was called Danmǫrk, referring to the Danish March (the marches of the Danes).
The [capital city](1968) of Denmark is [Copenhagen](15624), on the island of Zealand. Denmark is a [constitutional monarchy](344867) (meaning the [head of state](4866) is a monarch who has few established powers) with a King, [Frederik X](644444). Denmark is a parliamentary state, meaning the people appoint a [parliament](4075) to make decisions for them, and it has a [democratic government](3195) headed by an elected Prime Minister, who currently is [Mette Frederiksen](696356) since 2019.
## History
Denmark was first united in the [10th century](15634), during the Viking period, by king Harald Bluetooth (), who first converted Denmark to [Christianity](219595). The Vikings are well known for invading countries. In the [11th century](15632), the Danish Vikings controlled [England](3047) (the [Danelaw](48083)) for a while. In 1397 Denmark, Sweden and Norway became a single country with one queen (this country was called the _Kalmar Union_) Sweden became a separate country again in 1523. Denmark and Norway (called _Denmark-Norway)_ stayed united, until 1814. Denmark-Norway controlled many islands in the [Atlantic Ocean](1936), including the [Faroe Islands](19078), [Iceland](2979) and [Greenland](3599). Iceland became independent from Denmark in 1944.
Denmark became a [constitutional monarchy](344867) on June 5, 1849 when it adopted a [constitution](173) which took away powers from the King and gave rights to ordinary Danish people. June 5 is now a holiday in Denmark, called "Constitution Day".
Over the years Denmark lost many of the lands that it controlled in battle. Denmark's biggest war defeat was the _Second Schleswig War_ (in 1864) when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by the Kingdom [Prussia](5354) (now a part of [Germany](219828)). This was a big loss for Denmark and, consequently, it began a policy of [neutral](556169)ity after the loss, meaning it would no longer take part in any wars or support other countries. Denmark did not take part in the First World War.
On April 9, 1940, Denmark was invaded by [Nazi Germany](15678) and the Nazis stayed in Denmark throughout [World War II](219837). During the war, in 1943, Danes helped over 8,000 Jews to escape from Denmark into Sweden after the Nazis tried to arrest them.
After the liberation of Denmark, one part of the country was not. That was the island of [Bornholm](9164). The German Commandant _von Kamptz_ who was stationed there, refused to surrender to the Soviets as the German were fleeing to Bornholm and further to Sweden. The Soviets then bombed the two biggest towns Rønne and Nexø. After the Germans were captured on May 9, 1945, the Soviet Army occupied the island until April 6, 1946.
After World War Two, Denmark became a member of [NATO](24563) and the [European Union](2132). Greenland and the Faroe Islands are now part of the _Kingdom of Denmark_ and have their own governments and limited power.
## Geography
Denmark is the smallest of the [Scandinavia](9141)n countries. The neighbours are [Canada](219589) (to the northwest) [Germany](219828) (to the south), [Sweden](2136) (to the east), [Norway](3460) (to the north) and the [United Kingdom](856) (to the west). The country is surrounded by the sea except for Jutland (_Jylland_), the second largest part of Denmark after [Greenland](3599). It is connected to Germany and Canada by land. To the south-east there is the [Baltic Sea](9140), to the west the [North Sea](6308), to the north-west the island of [Greenland](3599), to the north the [Skagerrak](9137) and to the north-east the [Kattegat](9139).
The western part of Denmark is the [peninsula](3690) of [Jutland](21928) (, pronounced _yoo´-land_), bordering Germany. This is the only part of Denmark that is not an island. The rest of Denmark includes 77 islands people live on, and many tiny islands. The largest islands are Greenland (_Grønland_) Zealand (_Sjælland_), and Funen (_Fyn_). To the east is the island of [Bornholm](9164) in the [Baltic Sea](9140), the only place in Denmark where the bedrock can be seen. To the northwest is the island of [Greenland](3599), the only place in Denmark where the ice can be seen.
The country is quite flat. The highest hill or mountain is Møllehøj, which is 170.86 metres (560.56 ft) tall. There are many small hills, lakes, creeks, forests and farmland. Denmark's shore line covers 7,314 km (4,545 mi). Nobody in Denmark lives more than 60 km from the coast. The longest [river](673) in Denmark is the [Gudenå](669222).
### Climate
The [weather](3399) in Denmark is quite windy and rainy. In the [winter](6643), it does not get very cold; in most years, there are only a few weeks of [snow](4039). Every ten years or so, the sea around the islands freezes over, but in most winters, it does not. The [climate](1970) and [topography](9163) are not good for winter sports.
Most [summer](3640)s are not very hot. People always dress to be ready for rain or wind. There are also very sunny times, but nobody can know ahead of time when these will be. The best time of the year for outdoor activities is the months of May and June until midsummer.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 10 August 1975 in Holstebro.
And the lowest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 8 January 1982 in Hørsted or on 11 January 1984 in Greenland.
Top 5 warmest days
|Rank|Temperature|Date|Location|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.||10 August 1975|Holstebro|
|2.||20 July 2022, 25 June 2006|Abed, [Odense](38255)|
|3.||13 August 1911|Slagelse|
|4.||29 June 1947|Hillerød|
|5.||3 July 1883|Flintholm Gods|
Top 5 coldest nights
|Rank|Temperature|Date|Location|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.||8 January 1982|Hørsted|
|2.||26 January 1942|Løndal|
|3.||29 January 1941|Viborg|
|4.||18 January 1893|Holbæk|
|5.||30 January 1947|Bronderslev|
## Politics
Denmark has three branches of power; the [judiciary](59311) (the courts), the executive (the Prime Minister and the cabinet) and the [legislature](457) (the [Danish parliament](323053)). The current Prime Minister of Denmark is [Mette Frederiksen](696356), who was [elected](699504) in June 2019.
Denmark is a Kingdom which means it has a [monarch](4073) (a king or queen). The current monarch is king [Frederik X.](644444) The king does not have a lot of power (he does not make any important decisions) and has a symbolic role. Denmark became a [constitutional monarchy](344867) in 1849.
Elections to the [parliament](323053) are held every four years, and the winner of the election is the party or coalition which gets the most votes and seats in the parliament. After the elections are done, several parties who are in agreement will group together to form a [coalition](100352) [government](312), and the leader of the largest party becomes the prime minister.
Here is a short summary of the biggest political parties in Denmark, from left to right on the [political axis](592):
- Red-Green Alliance (Danish: _Enhedslisten_), a far-left [socialist](4793) party.
- The Alternative (Danish: _Alternativet_), a [green](306117) progressive party.
- Socialist People's Party (Danish: _Socialistisk Folkeparti_), a socialist party.
- [Social Democrats](1206151) (Danish: _Socialdemokraterne_), a left-wing party which is "[social democratic](87537)" (slightly socialist).
- [Venstre](937525), Liberal Party of Denmark (Danish: _Venstre_ (meaning "left")), a liberal party.
- Danish Social Liberal Party (Danish: _Det Radikale Venstre_), a radical left/borderline right-wing liberal party.
- Conservative People's Party (Danish: _Det Konservative Folksparti_), a [conservative](7235) party.
- Liberal Alliance (Danish: _Liberal Alliance_), a right-wing [liberal](4990) party.
- Danish People's Party (Danish: _Dansk Folkeparti_), a right-wing political party who dislike [immigration](136208) (people from other countries who come to live in Denmark).
### Welfare
Denmark, like the other [Nordic countries](50198). is well known for being a large [welfare](308544) state. The government provides many services to the public such as free health care, free [education](2113) (school and college) and free housing for the poor. Danes pay high taxes to fund welfare.
### Kingdom of Denmark
In geography, _Denmark_ is the land in northern Europe, where the [Danes](353159) live. In the political sense, the _Kingdom of Denmark_ is the area which the Danish Monarch rules over. The Kingdom of Denmark includes Denmark and also includes the [Faroe Islands](19078) in the [Atlantic Ocean](1936), and [Greenland](3599) in [North America](557). All three parts of the kingdom have different languages and culture. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are often considered to be separate countries but Denmark holds their [sovereignty](20561).
### Regions, territories and municipalities
Denmark is divided into five regions ([Danish](18022): _regioner_ or _region_ for one) and two autonomous territories ([Danish](18022): _selvstyrende territorium_). The regions replaced the former counties (_amter_) in January 2007. The regions are in charge of hospitals and health care.
|colspan=6|List of regions and territories|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Region Hovedstaden|[Capital Region of Denmark](747359)|[Copenhagen](15624)|1,645,825|2,561|642.6|
|Region Midtjylland|[Central Denmark Region](747368)|Århus|1,237,041|13,142|94.2|
|Region Nordjylland|[North Denmark Region](747369)|[Aalborg](38256)|578,839|7,927|73.2|
|Region Sjælland|[Region Zealand](747371)|[Roskilde](38251)|819,427|7,273|112.7|
|Region Syddanmark|[Region of Southern Denmark](747373)|[Odense](38255)|1,194,659|12,191|97.99|
|Færøerne|[Faroe Islands](19078)|Torshavn|52,000|1,393|37.00|
|Grønland|[Greenland](3599)|[Nuuk](12698)|57,777|2,166,086|0.028|
|**Entire country**|**5,534,955**|**2,210,573**|**2.5**|||
The regions are then subdivided into municipalities (). There are currently 98 municipalities, but before January 2007 there were 275. The number of municipalities was decreased when it was decided that, to become more efficient, each should have a population of at least 20,000 .
## People
The biggest part (90.5%) of Denmark's population of just under 5.4 million is of Danish descent, according to 2009 statistics. Of the rest 8.9% who are immigrants or descendent from recent immigrants, many come from [South Asia](25177) or the [Middle East](4368). There are also small groups of [Inuit](1983) from [Greenland](3599) and [Faroese](19078).
Minorities in Denmark include [Turks](290751), [Poles](159498), [Syrians](6193), [Germans](57364), Iraqis, Romanians and people from former [Yugoslavia](15797). There are also other Asian and African populations in the country. Small numbers of [Roma](89852) and [Hungarians](159579) live in Denmark. There is also a small Jewish population.
The Danes speak the national language, [Danish](18022), which is very similar to the other [Scandinavia](9141)n languages. Swedish and Norwegian are so close to Danish that most Danes understand them.
As well as Danish, most Danes speak a foreign language too, such as [English](2843), which is popular as an [international](654586) language, or [German](3346). In the southern part of Jutland, a German minority speaks [German](3346). On the [Faroe Islands](19078), [Faroese](19079) is spoken, and people living in [Greenland](3599) speak [Inuit](18799).
Religion does not play a large part in the life of most Danes and church attendance is very low. However, even though many Danes are atheist, 80.4% are members of the Protestant "Church of Denmark" (, The National Church) which is the official "state church" of Denmark. The National Church is Lutheran, which means it separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the [16th Century](14230). Other important faiths include [Judaism](219593), [Islam](219592) (the number of Muslims is increasing), other Protestant groups and Catholicism.
## Transport
Because of the many islands, Denmark has many [bridge](5010)s. The main parts of the country, and most of the bigger islands, are connected by [road](3795)s and railroads. One of the world's longest bridges connects the eastern and the western parts of the country, and there is a large bridge to Sweden also. There is still no bridge across the Baltic Sea to Germany, but it will most likely be built in a few years. The bridge to Sweden was expensive, took a long time to build, and required much planning by engineers.
There are still many islands with no bridges to the mainland. People have to go by [boat](5817) or [airplane](78545) to reach these islands. Many islands will never be reached by bridges, because they are too small or too far away. If the island has too few people, bridges are often not built because it is expensive to build.
Cycling is very popular in Denmark because the ground is so flat. [Copenhagen](15624) is a city that is very bicycle friendly, with bicycle lanes extending over 12,000 km.
## Culture
The people of Denmark have always depended on the sea. In earlier days, people could not travel anywhere unless they went by boat. Many Danes were [fishermen](10000) or [merchant](48817)s. Even today, many Danes spend much time near or at the sea.
[Farm](294)ing has always been one of the main [occupations](26135). Because of the [climate](1970) and the [soil](7117), Denmark is a good place for [agriculture](71284). [Export](14061) of food to the neighbouring countries is one of the most important sources of [income](46846) for the country. Danish hams and cookies are exported throughout the world.
Perhaps the most famous Dane is actually [Hamlet](11546), the title character of [William Shakespeare](354103)'s famous play, which was set in the real castle of Kronborg in [Helsingør](482931), north of Copenhagen. The play was based on an old Danish myth of the Viking Prince Amled of Jutland, and his quest for revenge against his father's killer. Another widely known Dane is [Hans Christian Andersen](34076), a [writer](15228) mostly famous for such [fairy tale](23778)s as "[The Little Mermaid](34073)", and "[The Ugly Duckling](8794)". Also [Karen Blixen](201397), [Tycho Brahe](33838) and the philosopher [Søren Kierkegaard](22375) are well known worldwide. There are many famous Danish scientists, including [Niels Bohr](54370), the famous physicist who developed the first working model for the [atom](47), and Ole Rømer, who discovered the [speed of light](4322). Hans Kirk, although less well known outside of Denmark, is the writer of the best-selling Danish novel of all time, _The Fishermen_.
### Music
Danes enjoy many different types of music, including [ballet](33552)s, jazz music, [pop](2041) and [rock](18827). Denmark's most famous [classical](5022) [composer](7687) is [Carl Nielsen](56589). Famous Danish bands include [Aqua](285809), a pop band, and The Raveonettes, an indie rock band. The most famous Danish rock star is [Lars Ulrich](37358) of the band [Metallica](33681).
### Food
The [cuisine](19363) of Denmark shares much with the other Nordic countries ([Finland](292), [Norway](3460), [Iceland](2979), and [Sweden](2136)) as well as northern [Germany](219828). Common meats are [pork](7751) and [fish](285). Traditional Danish food includes _frikadeller_ (fried [meatball](76480)s, often served with [potato](626)es and various sorts of [gravy](19928)). Fish is widely eaten, especially on the west coast of [Jutland](21928).
### Holidays
[Christmas](3317) () is the main feast of the year. Christmas is traditionally celebrated on the eve, December 24, and this is when the main Christmas meal is eaten and presents are unwrapped.
In midwinter, a [fast](22480) is celebrated. Children are dressed up, and go from house to house begging for money. This practice has in the recent years been taken over by [Halloween](7460), and most people give candy not money. A barrel filled with candy is smashed with clubs. The person who makes the candy fall out is appointed queen of cats and the person who hits the last stick is appointed king of cats.
Midsummer is celebrated with a huge bonfire in the evening of June 23. Most Danes have a three-week summer holiday in July or August.
|Date|English Name|Local Name|Remarks|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|January 1|[New Year's Day](17588)|_Nytårsdag_||
|The Thursday before Easter Sunday|[Maundy Thursday](292067)|_Skærtorsdag_||
|The Friday before Easter Sunday|[Good Friday](24959)|_Langfredag_||
|[March](468)/[April](1)|Easter Sunday|_Påskesøndag_|The Danish celebrate three days of Easter.|
|The day after Easter Sunday|[Easter Monday](391883)|_2. Påskedag_||
|May 1|[Labor Day](30830)|_Arbejdernes kampdag_|Not everybody has this day off.|
|June 5|[Constitution Day](935004)|_Grundlovsdag_|In remembrance of the signing of the Danish constitution in 1849.|
|Varies||_St. Bededag_|A collection of smaller Christian holidays into one full day.|
|40 days after Easter|Ascension Day|_Kr. Himmelfartsdag_||
|7 weeks after Easter|[Pentecost](61940)|_Pinse_|The Danish celebrate two days of Pentecost.|
|December 24|Christmas Eve|_Juleaften_|The children get presents on the eve before Christmas Day.|
|December 25|[Christmas Day](3317)|_Juledag_|The Danish celebrate three days of Christmas.|
|December 26|2. Christmas Day|_2. Juledag_||
### Sports
The most popular sport in Denmark is football (soccer). Sailing, swimming and other water sports are very popular because of the long coastline. Another common sport is cycling, (Copenhagen has been nicknamed the "City of Cyclists" because of the popularity of bicycles for moving around), which has become popular in Denmark partly because of the flat land all over the country. Indoor sports such as badminton and handball are also popular during the long winters.
## Monarchy
[Monarch](3601) is a word that means [king](410) or [queen](3309). Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. The current monarch is [Frederik X](644444), who has been the king since 2024 after his mother [Queen Magrethe II](21394) [abdicated](1076855) in her new years speech the 31. of december 2023.
- King Frederik who married an [Australia](27)n woman named Mary, and have 4 children:
- Crown Prince Christian
- Princess Isabella
- Prince Vincent & Princess Josephine (twins)
- Joachim the brother of Frederik X, married a [British](7399) woman from [Hong Kong](4860) but later divorced in 2005 after being married for 10 years. He has two sons:
- Prince Nikolai
- Prince Felix
In 2008 Prince Joachim married for the second time. His new wife is from [France](291) and is called Marie, with whom he has a son and a daughter.
- Prince Henrik
- Princess Athena
## Related pages
- [Denmark at the Olympics](319388)
- [Denmark national football team](172948)
- [List of rivers of Denmark](336716)
## References
- Notes
## Other websites
- [Denmark.dk](http://www.denmark.dk) – The official website of Denmark
- [VisitDenmark.com](http://www.visitdenmark.com) – Official travel guide to Denmark
- [Danish Culture](http://www.denmark.net/denmark-guide/danish-culture.html)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Denmark
- **common name**: Denmark
- **image flag**: Flag of Denmark.svg
- **alt flag**: Red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side
- **image coat**: National coat of arms of Denmark.svg
- **symbol width**: 75px
- **other symbol**: _Der er et yndigt land_
()
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
_Kong Christian stod ved højen mast_
()
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
- **other symbol type**: National anthems of Denmark, Anthems:
- **image map**: Kingdom of Denmark (orthographic projection).svg
- **map width**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location of the Kingdom of Denmark (green), including Greenland, the Faroe Islands (circled), and Denmark proper
- **image map2**: EU-Denmark.svg
- **map2 width**: 250px
- **capital**: Copenhagen
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: Danish language, Danish
- **regional languages**: Faroese language, Faroese
Greenlandic language, Greenlandic
German language, German
- **ethnic groups**: *86.11% Danes, Danish
* Faroese people, Faroese
Indigenous status:
* Greenlandic Inuit, Inuit
Minority status:
* North Schleswig Germans, German
Other:
* 13.89% Immigration to Denmark, non-Danish
- **membership type**: Sovereign state
*
- **leader title1**: Monarchy of Denmark, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Frederik X of Denmark, Frederik X
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Denmark, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Mette Frederiksen
- **legislature**: Folketing
- **sovereignty type**: History of Denmark, History
- **established event1**: History of Denmark#Middle ages, Consolidation
- **established date1**: 8th century
- **established date2**: 5 June 1849
- **established event3**: Danish Realm
- **established date3**: 24 March 1948
- **established event4**: European Economic Community, EEC 1973 enlargement of the European Communities, accession
- **established date4**: 1 January 1973
- **area km2**: 42,933
- **area label**: Denmark proper
- **area rank**: 130th
- **area sq mi**: (16,576.5)
- **area label2**: Entire Danish Realm, kingdom
- **area data2**:
(12th)
- **population estimate**: 5,837,213 (List of countries by population, 114th)
- **population estimate year**: Q3 2020
- **population density km2**: 137.65
- **population label2**: Faroe Islands
- **population data2**: 52,110
- **population label3**: Greenland
- **population data3**: 56,081
- **fr foot5**: <small>(Denmark)</small>
- **gdp ppp**: $299 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2018
- **gdp ppp rank**: 52nd
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $51,643
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 19th
- **gdp nominal**: $370 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2018
- **gdp nominal rank**: 34th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $63,829
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 6th
- **gini**: 27.5
- **gini year**: 2019
- **gini change**: decrease
- **hdi**: 0.940
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 10th
- **currency**: Danish krone
- **currency code**: DKK
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **drives on**: Right
- **religion**: 75.8% Christianity
—74.3% Church of Denmark
—1.5% other Christians, Christian
19.1% Irreligion, no religion
4.4% Islam in Denmark, Islam
0.7% Religion in Denmark, others
- **religion year**: 2020
- **official website**: [https://denmark.dk/ Denmark.dk]
|
**Denmark** (), officially named the **Kingdom of Denmark**, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the furthest south of the Scandinavian countries, to the northeast of North America, to the south of Norway and south-west of Sweden (which it is connected to by a bridge). It has a south border with Germany and a northeast border with Canada. It borders the Arctic Ocean, to the north-northwest, the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast, North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the east. Denmark is a developed country with a large welfare state; In 2006 and 2007, surveys ranked Denmark as "the happiest place in the world", based on standards of health, welfare, and education.
The origin of the name Denmark () is uncertain. In Old Norse, the country was called Danmǫrk, referring to the Danish March (the marches of the Danes).
The capital city of Denmark is Copenhagen, on the island of Zealand. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy (meaning the head of state is a monarch who has few established powers) with a King, Frederik X. Denmark is a parliamentary state, meaning the people appoint a parliament to make decisions for them, and it has a democratic government headed by an elected Prime Minister, who currently is Mette Frederiksen since 2019.
## History
Denmark was first united in the 10th century, during the Viking period, by king Harald Bluetooth (), who first converted Denmark to Christianity. The Vikings are well known for invading countries. In the 11th century, the Danish Vikings controlled England (the Danelaw) for a while. In 1397 Denmark, Sweden and Norway became a single country with one queen (this country was called the _Kalmar Union_) Sweden became a separate country again in 1523. Denmark and Norway (called _Denmark-Norway)_ stayed united, until 1814. Denmark-Norway controlled many islands in the Atlantic Ocean, including the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland. Iceland became independent from Denmark in 1944.
Denmark became a constitutional monarchy on June 5, 1849 when it adopted a constitution which took away powers from the King and gave rights to ordinary Danish people. June 5 is now a holiday in Denmark, called "Constitution Day".
Over the years Denmark lost many of the lands that it controlled in battle. Denmark's biggest war defeat was the _Second Schleswig War_ (in 1864) when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by the Kingdom Prussia (now a part of Germany). This was a big loss for Denmark and, consequently, it began a policy of neutrality after the loss, meaning it would no longer take part in any wars or support other countries. Denmark did not take part in the First World War.
On April 9, 1940, Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany and the Nazis stayed in Denmark throughout World War II. During the war, in 1943, Danes helped over 8,000 Jews to escape from Denmark into Sweden after the Nazis tried to arrest them.
After the liberation of Denmark, one part of the country was not. That was the island of Bornholm. The German Commandant _von Kamptz_ who was stationed there, refused to surrender to the Soviets as the German were fleeing to Bornholm and further to Sweden. The Soviets then bombed the two biggest towns Rønne and Nexø. After the Germans were captured on May 9, 1945, the Soviet Army occupied the island until April 6, 1946.
After World War Two, Denmark became a member of NATO and the European Union. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are now part of the _Kingdom of Denmark_ and have their own governments and limited power.
## Geography
Denmark is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. The neighbours are Canada (to the northwest) Germany (to the south), Sweden (to the east), Norway (to the north) and the United Kingdom (to the west). The country is surrounded by the sea except for Jutland (_Jylland_), the second largest part of Denmark after Greenland. It is connected to Germany and Canada by land. To the south-east there is the Baltic Sea, to the west the North Sea, to the north-west the island of Greenland, to the north the Skagerrak and to the north-east the Kattegat.
The western part of Denmark is the peninsula of Jutland (, pronounced _yoo´-land_), bordering Germany. This is the only part of Denmark that is not an island. The rest of Denmark includes 77 islands people live on, and many tiny islands. The largest islands are Greenland (_Grønland_) Zealand (_Sjælland_), and Funen (_Fyn_). To the east is the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea, the only place in Denmark where the bedrock can be seen. To the northwest is the island of Greenland, the only place in Denmark where the ice can be seen.
The country is quite flat. The highest hill or mountain is Møllehøj, which is 170.86 metres (560.56 ft) tall. There are many small hills, lakes, creeks, forests and farmland. Denmark's shore line covers 7,314 km (4,545 mi). Nobody in Denmark lives more than 60 km from the coast. The longest river in Denmark is the Gudenå.
### Climate
The weather in Denmark is quite windy and rainy. In the winter, it does not get very cold; in most years, there are only a few weeks of snow. Every ten years or so, the sea around the islands freezes over, but in most winters, it does not. The climate and topography are not good for winter sports.
Most summers are not very hot. People always dress to be ready for rain or wind. There are also very sunny times, but nobody can know ahead of time when these will be. The best time of the year for outdoor activities is the months of May and June until midsummer.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 10 August 1975 in Holstebro.
And the lowest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 8 January 1982 in Hørsted or on 11 January 1984 in Greenland.
Top 5 warmest days
|Rank|Temperature|Date|Location|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.||10 August 1975|Holstebro|
|2.||20 July 2022, 25 June 2006|Abed, Odense|
|3.||13 August 1911|Slagelse|
|4.||29 June 1947|Hillerød|
|5.||3 July 1883|Flintholm Gods|
Top 5 coldest nights
|Rank|Temperature|Date|Location|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.||8 January 1982|Hørsted|
|2.||26 January 1942|Løndal|
|3.||29 January 1941|Viborg|
|4.||18 January 1893|Holbæk|
|5.||30 January 1947|Bronderslev|
## Politics
Denmark has three branches of power; the judiciary (the courts), the executive (the Prime Minister and the cabinet) and the legislature (the Danish parliament). The current Prime Minister of Denmark is Mette Frederiksen, who was elected in June 2019.
Denmark is a Kingdom which means it has a monarch (a king or queen). The current monarch is king Frederik X. The king does not have a lot of power (he does not make any important decisions) and has a symbolic role. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849.
Elections to the parliament are held every four years, and the winner of the election is the party or coalition which gets the most votes and seats in the parliament. After the elections are done, several parties who are in agreement will group together to form a coalition government, and the leader of the largest party becomes the prime minister.
Here is a short summary of the biggest political parties in Denmark, from left to right on the political axis:
- Red-Green Alliance (Danish: _Enhedslisten_), a far-left socialist party.
- The Alternative (Danish: _Alternativet_), a green progressive party.
- Socialist People's Party (Danish: _Socialistisk Folkeparti_), a socialist party.
- Social Democrats (Danish: _Socialdemokraterne_), a left-wing party which is "social democratic" (slightly socialist).
- Venstre, Liberal Party of Denmark (Danish: _Venstre_ (meaning "left")), a liberal party.
- Danish Social Liberal Party (Danish: _Det Radikale Venstre_), a radical left/borderline right-wing liberal party.
- Conservative People's Party (Danish: _Det Konservative Folksparti_), a conservative party.
- Liberal Alliance (Danish: _Liberal Alliance_), a right-wing liberal party.
- Danish People's Party (Danish: _Dansk Folkeparti_), a right-wing political party who dislike immigration (people from other countries who come to live in Denmark).
### Welfare
Denmark, like the other Nordic countries. is well known for being a large welfare state. The government provides many services to the public such as free health care, free education (school and college) and free housing for the poor. Danes pay high taxes to fund welfare.
### Kingdom of Denmark
In geography, _Denmark_ is the land in northern Europe, where the Danes live. In the political sense, the _Kingdom of Denmark_ is the area which the Danish Monarch rules over. The Kingdom of Denmark includes Denmark and also includes the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, and Greenland in North America. All three parts of the kingdom have different languages and culture. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are often considered to be separate countries but Denmark holds their sovereignty.
### Regions, territories and municipalities
Denmark is divided into five regions (Danish: _regioner_ or _region_ for one) and two autonomous territories (Danish: _selvstyrende territorium_). The regions replaced the former counties (_amter_) in January 2007. The regions are in charge of hospitals and health care.
|colspan=6|List of regions and territories|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Region Hovedstaden|Capital Region of Denmark|Copenhagen|1,645,825|2,561|642.6|
|Region Midtjylland|Central Denmark Region|Århus|1,237,041|13,142|94.2|
|Region Nordjylland|North Denmark Region|Aalborg|578,839|7,927|73.2|
|Region Sjælland|Region Zealand|Roskilde|819,427|7,273|112.7|
|Region Syddanmark|Region of Southern Denmark|Odense|1,194,659|12,191|97.99|
|Færøerne|Faroe Islands|Torshavn|52,000|1,393|37.00|
|Grønland|Greenland|Nuuk|57,777|2,166,086|0.028|
|**Entire country**|**5,534,955**|**2,210,573**|**2.5**|||
The regions are then subdivided into municipalities (). There are currently 98 municipalities, but before January 2007 there were 275. The number of municipalities was decreased when it was decided that, to become more efficient, each should have a population of at least 20,000 .
## People
The biggest part (90.5%) of Denmark's population of just under 5.4 million is of Danish descent, according to 2009 statistics. Of the rest 8.9% who are immigrants or descendent from recent immigrants, many come from South Asia or the Middle East. There are also small groups of Inuit from Greenland and Faroese.
Minorities in Denmark include Turks, Poles, Syrians, Germans, Iraqis, Romanians and people from former Yugoslavia. There are also other Asian and African populations in the country. Small numbers of Roma and Hungarians live in Denmark. There is also a small Jewish population.
The Danes speak the national language, Danish, which is very similar to the other Scandinavian languages. Swedish and Norwegian are so close to Danish that most Danes understand them.
As well as Danish, most Danes speak a foreign language too, such as English, which is popular as an international language, or German. In the southern part of Jutland, a German minority speaks German. On the Faroe Islands, Faroese is spoken, and people living in Greenland speak Inuit.
Religion does not play a large part in the life of most Danes and church attendance is very low. However, even though many Danes are atheist, 80.4% are members of the Protestant "Church of Denmark" (, The National Church) which is the official "state church" of Denmark. The National Church is Lutheran, which means it separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th Century. Other important faiths include Judaism, Islam (the number of Muslims is increasing), other Protestant groups and Catholicism.
## Transport
Because of the many islands, Denmark has many bridges. The main parts of the country, and most of the bigger islands, are connected by roads and railroads. One of the world's longest bridges connects the eastern and the western parts of the country, and there is a large bridge to Sweden also. There is still no bridge across the Baltic Sea to Germany, but it will most likely be built in a few years. The bridge to Sweden was expensive, took a long time to build, and required much planning by engineers.
There are still many islands with no bridges to the mainland. People have to go by boat or airplane to reach these islands. Many islands will never be reached by bridges, because they are too small or too far away. If the island has too few people, bridges are often not built because it is expensive to build.
Cycling is very popular in Denmark because the ground is so flat. Copenhagen is a city that is very bicycle friendly, with bicycle lanes extending over 12,000 km.
## Culture
The people of Denmark have always depended on the sea. In earlier days, people could not travel anywhere unless they went by boat. Many Danes were fishermen or merchants. Even today, many Danes spend much time near or at the sea.
Farming has always been one of the main occupations. Because of the climate and the soil, Denmark is a good place for agriculture. Export of food to the neighbouring countries is one of the most important sources of income for the country. Danish hams and cookies are exported throughout the world.
Perhaps the most famous Dane is actually Hamlet, the title character of William Shakespeare's famous play, which was set in the real castle of Kronborg in Helsingør, north of Copenhagen. The play was based on an old Danish myth of the Viking Prince Amled of Jutland, and his quest for revenge against his father's killer. Another widely known Dane is Hans Christian Andersen, a writer mostly famous for such fairy tales as "The Little Mermaid", and "The Ugly Duckling". Also Karen Blixen, Tycho Brahe and the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard are well known worldwide. There are many famous Danish scientists, including Niels Bohr, the famous physicist who developed the first working model for the atom, and Ole Rømer, who discovered the speed of light. Hans Kirk, although less well known outside of Denmark, is the writer of the best-selling Danish novel of all time, _The Fishermen_.
### Music
Danes enjoy many different types of music, including ballets, jazz music, pop and rock. Denmark's most famous classical composer is Carl Nielsen. Famous Danish bands include Aqua, a pop band, and The Raveonettes, an indie rock band. The most famous Danish rock star is Lars Ulrich of the band Metallica.
### Food
The cuisine of Denmark shares much with the other Nordic countries (Finland, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden) as well as northern Germany. Common meats are pork and fish. Traditional Danish food includes _frikadeller_ (fried meatballs, often served with potatoes and various sorts of gravy). Fish is widely eaten, especially on the west coast of Jutland.
### Holidays
Christmas () is the main feast of the year. Christmas is traditionally celebrated on the eve, December 24, and this is when the main Christmas meal is eaten and presents are unwrapped.
In midwinter, a fast is celebrated. Children are dressed up, and go from house to house begging for money. This practice has in the recent years been taken over by Halloween, and most people give candy not money. A barrel filled with candy is smashed with clubs. The person who makes the candy fall out is appointed queen of cats and the person who hits the last stick is appointed king of cats.
Midsummer is celebrated with a huge bonfire in the evening of June 23. Most Danes have a three-week summer holiday in July or August.
|Date|English Name|Local Name|Remarks|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|January 1|New Year's Day|_Nytårsdag_||
|The Thursday before Easter Sunday|Maundy Thursday|_Skærtorsdag_||
|The Friday before Easter Sunday|Good Friday|_Langfredag_||
|March/April|Easter Sunday|_Påskesøndag_|The Danish celebrate three days of Easter.|
|The day after Easter Sunday|Easter Monday|_2. Påskedag_||
|May 1|Labor Day|_Arbejdernes kampdag_|Not everybody has this day off.|
|June 5|Constitution Day|_Grundlovsdag_|In remembrance of the signing of the Danish constitution in 1849.|
|Varies||_St. Bededag_|A collection of smaller Christian holidays into one full day.|
|40 days after Easter|Ascension Day|_Kr. Himmelfartsdag_||
|7 weeks after Easter|Pentecost|_Pinse_|The Danish celebrate two days of Pentecost.|
|December 24|Christmas Eve|_Juleaften_|The children get presents on the eve before Christmas Day.|
|December 25|Christmas Day|_Juledag_|The Danish celebrate three days of Christmas.|
|December 26|2. Christmas Day|_2. Juledag_||
### Sports
The most popular sport in Denmark is football (soccer). Sailing, swimming and other water sports are very popular because of the long coastline. Another common sport is cycling, (Copenhagen has been nicknamed the "City of Cyclists" because of the popularity of bicycles for moving around), which has become popular in Denmark partly because of the flat land all over the country. Indoor sports such as badminton and handball are also popular during the long winters.
## Monarchy
Monarch is a word that means king or queen. Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. The current monarch is Frederik X, who has been the king since 2024 after his mother Queen Magrethe II abdicated in her new years speech the 31. of december 2023.
- King Frederik who married an Australian woman named Mary, and have 4 children:
- Crown Prince Christian
- Princess Isabella
- Prince Vincent & Princess Josephine (twins)
- Joachim the brother of Frederik X, married a British woman from Hong Kong but later divorced in 2005 after being married for 10 years. He has two sons:
- Prince Nikolai
- Prince Felix
In 2008 Prince Joachim married for the second time. His new wife is from France and is called Marie, with whom he has a son and a daughter.
- Prince Henrik
- Princess Athena
## Related pages
- Denmark at the Olympics
- Denmark national football team
- List of rivers of Denmark
## References
- Notes
## Other websites
- Denmark.dk – The official website of Denmark
- VisitDenmark.com – Official travel guide to Denmark
- Danish Culture
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Denmark
- **common name**: Denmark
- **image flag**: Flag of Denmark.svg
- **alt flag**: Red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side
- **image coat**: National coat of arms of Denmark.svg
- **symbol width**: 75px
- **other symbol**: _Der er et yndigt land_
()
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
_Kong Christian stod ved højen mast_
()
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
- **other symbol type**: National anthems of Denmark, Anthems:
- **image map**: Kingdom of Denmark (orthographic projection).svg
- **map width**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location of the Kingdom of Denmark (green), including Greenland, the Faroe Islands (circled), and Denmark proper
- **image map2**: EU-Denmark.svg
- **map2 width**: 250px
- **capital**: Copenhagen
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: Danish language, Danish
- **regional languages**: Faroese language, Faroese
Greenlandic language, Greenlandic
German language, German
- **ethnic groups**: *86.11% Danes, Danish
* Faroese people, Faroese
Indigenous status:
* Greenlandic Inuit, Inuit
Minority status:
* North Schleswig Germans, German
Other:
* 13.89% Immigration to Denmark, non-Danish
- **membership type**: Sovereign state
*
- **leader title1**: Monarchy of Denmark, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Frederik X of Denmark, Frederik X
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Denmark, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Mette Frederiksen
- **legislature**: Folketing
- **sovereignty type**: History of Denmark, History
- **established event1**: History of Denmark#Middle ages, Consolidation
- **established date1**: 8th century
- **established date2**: 5 June 1849
- **established event3**: Danish Realm
- **established date3**: 24 March 1948
- **established event4**: European Economic Community, EEC 1973 enlargement of the European Communities, accession
- **established date4**: 1 January 1973
- **area km2**: 42,933
- **area label**: Denmark proper
- **area rank**: 130th
- **area sq mi**: (16,576.5)
- **area label2**: Entire Danish Realm, kingdom
- **area data2**:
(12th)
- **population estimate**: 5,837,213 (List of countries by population, 114th)
- **population estimate year**: Q3 2020
- **population density km2**: 137.65
- **population label2**: Faroe Islands
- **population data2**: 52,110
- **population label3**: Greenland
- **population data3**: 56,081
- **fr foot5**: <small>(Denmark)</small>
- **gdp ppp**: $299 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2018
- **gdp ppp rank**: 52nd
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $51,643
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 19th
- **gdp nominal**: $370 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2018
- **gdp nominal rank**: 34th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $63,829
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 6th
- **gini**: 27.5
- **gini year**: 2019
- **gini change**: decrease
- **hdi**: 0.940
- **hdi year**: 2019
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 10th
- **currency**: Danish krone
- **currency code**: DKK
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **drives on**: Right
- **religion**: 75.8% Christianity
—74.3% Church of Denmark
—1.5% other Christians, Christian
19.1% Irreligion, no religion
4.4% Islam in Denmark, Islam
0.7% Religion in Denmark, others
- **religion year**: 2020
- **official website**: [https://denmark.dk/ Denmark.dk]
|
high
| false
| false
|
209
|
Death
|
**Death** is the end of a [life](425) in an [organism](5812). All biological and living activity of the living thing stops, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the [heart](13432) stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die.
Living things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as [murder](3706)), [accident](4452) or [disease](4874) that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of [age](114053). In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a [soul](805) and believe that the soul can continue without a body ([afterlife](11276)), move into another body ([reincarnation](4733)), or cease to exist ([annihilationism](251080)). [Religion](653)s have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own [custom](5110)s and [ritual](25603)s to respect the dead.
When people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as _terminal_. Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called [pathology](190463). In [medicine](3793), death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know.
## Society and culture
Death is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died.
In any society, human death is surrounded by [ritual](25603) - a [wake](6253) or [funeral](6253) is normal. In some places it was common to eat the dead in a form of [ritual](25603) [cannibalism](7458). But this is no longer common, in part because [disease](4874) like [kuru](113529) can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are [taboo](26394) in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and [hygiene](8450) reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in [law](426), to be sure it is disposed of properly. In 2021 the leading cause of death in the [United States](219587) was [heart disease](13434) followed by [cancer](5001) and then [COVID-19](741645).
### Dealing with dead bodies and their property
Finding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into _human morbidity_ or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an [autopsy](135984). Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the [state](798) if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness.
To prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their [property](3336) and possessions. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research. It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible.
### Religious views of death
For a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die. This is one of the largest questions of [philosophy](590) and [religion](653). Many people believe there is some form of [afterlife](11276).
Ancient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral.
[Christianity](219595) has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans. In [Islam](219592) this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In [Christianity](219595) itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really [God](305) and so could lose his body and still have the power of [resurrection](4072). In [Buddhism](3496) [reincarnation](4733) is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from [Hinduism](5961).
[Confucianism](14829) advises respect for parents and forms of [ancestor](19655) [worship](51910) to respect both dead and living ancestors.
### Rituals surrounding death
Every [ethical tradition](13467) including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like [cannibalism](7458).
Very much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like [cremation](49052) of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish.
For the same reason, saying goodbye is important. Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who "did not have a chance to say goodbye".
Maybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others.
Some ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often.
## Preparing for death
Aside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no [quality of life](928343). Human [psychology](6204) must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise:
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a [memoir](273087) or a full [autobiography](28401):
Because events leave living memory, and may only be part of [oral tradition](46954), there are projects to record everything that people remember about [World War I](219834) and the Shoah. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War. This discipline has changed [history](324) since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard.
## Other terms for death
There are other [term](332787)s for death. Examples are, "to pass away", "to go to a better place", "to buy the farm" (generally used in the [military](3516)), "to leave the earth", "big sleep", and "to kick the bucket". the term _gone_ may also be a term for describing death. _for example_: if a person has died, they are also said to be _gone_, as in _gone to a better place_ or _no longer here_.
Death is often considered as inevitable, and as "the beginning of a new life" extending beyond human existence.
## Unnatural causes of death
Old age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or [murder](3706). Three famous murders are [John Wilkes Booth](7574) killing [Abraham Lincoln](5414), [James Earl Ray](279480) killing [Martin Luther King Jr.](7354) and [Lee Harvey Oswald](256773) killing the [President of the United States](7174) [John F. Kennedy](8310). People can also die by [accidents](4452) resulting in terminal [trauma](13712), [hypothermia](227234), [starvation](5548), [suicide](10277) and [dehydration](33094).
## Related pages
- [Funeral](6253)
- [Death (personification)](271198)
- [Will (law)](44241)
|
**Death** is the end of a life in an organism. All biological and living activity of the living thing stops, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the heart stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die.
Living things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as murder), accident or disease that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of age. In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a soul and believe that the soul can continue without a body (afterlife), move into another body (reincarnation), or cease to exist (annihilationism). Religions have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own customs and rituals to respect the dead.
When people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as _terminal_. Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called pathology. In medicine, death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know.
## Society and culture
Death is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died.
In any society, human death is surrounded by ritual - a wake or funeral is normal. In some places it was common to eat the dead in a form of ritual cannibalism. But this is no longer common, in part because disease like kuru can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are taboo in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and hygiene reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in law, to be sure it is disposed of properly. In 2021 the leading cause of death in the United States was heart disease followed by cancer and then COVID-19.
### Dealing with dead bodies and their property
Finding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into _human morbidity_ or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an autopsy. Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the state if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness.
To prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their property and possessions. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research. It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible.
### Religious views of death
For a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die. This is one of the largest questions of philosophy and religion. Many people believe there is some form of afterlife.
Ancient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral.
Christianity has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans. In Islam this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In Christianity itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really God and so could lose his body and still have the power of resurrection. In Buddhism reincarnation is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from Hinduism.
Confucianism advises respect for parents and forms of ancestor worship to respect both dead and living ancestors.
### Rituals surrounding death
Every ethical tradition including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like cannibalism.
Very much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like cremation of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish.
For the same reason, saying goodbye is important. Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who "did not have a chance to say goodbye".
Maybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others.
Some ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often.
## Preparing for death
Aside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no quality of life. Human psychology must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise:
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a memoir or a full autobiography:
Because events leave living memory, and may only be part of oral tradition, there are projects to record everything that people remember about World War I and the Shoah. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War. This discipline has changed history since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard.
## Other terms for death
There are other terms for death. Examples are, "to pass away", "to go to a better place", "to buy the farm" (generally used in the military), "to leave the earth", "big sleep", and "to kick the bucket". the term _gone_ may also be a term for describing death. _for example_: if a person has died, they are also said to be _gone_, as in _gone to a better place_ or _no longer here_.
Death is often considered as inevitable, and as "the beginning of a new life" extending beyond human existence.
## Unnatural causes of death
Old age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or murder. Three famous murders are John Wilkes Booth killing Abraham Lincoln, James Earl Ray killing Martin Luther King Jr. and Lee Harvey Oswald killing the President of the United States John F. Kennedy. People can also die by accidents resulting in terminal trauma, hypothermia, starvation, suicide and dehydration.
## Related pages
- Funeral
- Death (personification)
- Will (law)
|
high
| false
| false
|
210
|
Diesel-electric
|
A **diesel-electric** [engine](8382) is a [diesel generator](438011), a [diesel engine](13162) that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds [electric power](55952) to an [electric motor](32062) which turns a [driveshaft](135327). Its [efficiency](62766) is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through [gear](49103)s. Most [locomotive](103067)s and many [ship](5816)s use diesel-electric drive.
Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a [battery](6527). Some designs also store braking energy in a [flywheel](49629), which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more [complexity](104288) and weight to the [vehicle](6153), so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.
Because they do not require any change or [investment](48143) in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's [internal combustion engine](93641). When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the [fossil fuel](19412) of most [gasoline](19520) engines powering similar vehicles.
[Honda](31574) and [Toyota](12849) are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in [Iceland](2979) where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.
In countries like [India](391), government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.
Many activists feel that promoting [hydrogen](355) is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term.
|
A **diesel-electric** engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft. Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears. Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive.
Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.
Because they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles.
Honda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.
In countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.
Many activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
214
|
Embassy
|
A foreign **embassy** is the official office of one [country](121) in another. It is usually in the [capital city](1968) of the other country. It is where the [ambassador](4009) and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the [diplomacy](20491) (talk) between the two governments happens there. They represent their country to the host government. The embassy represents the interests of the entire country and is fully responsible for the relationship between the two countries.
The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.
|
A foreign **embassy** is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the ambassador and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the diplomacy (talk) between the two governments happens there. They represent their country to the host government. The embassy represents the interests of the entire country and is fully responsible for the relationship between the two countries.
The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
216
|
Europe
|
**Europe** is the western part of the continent of [Eurasia](2025), often thought of as its own [continent](117). It is separated from Asia by the [Ural Mountains](48519) in [Russia](2964) and the [Bosporus](85859) [strait](85860) in [Turkey](2860).
Europe is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the [Atlantic Ocean](1936). To the north is the [Arctic Ocean](1980). The [Mediterranean Sea](7621) separates Southeastern Europe from the continent of [Africa](1942). On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and [Ural Mountains](48519).
There are at least 44 or 50 countries in Europe (the European identities of 7 countries: [Armenia](56), [Azerbaijan](6370), Cyprus, [Georgia](14986), [Kazakhstan](11232), [Russia](2964) and [Turkey](2860) are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the [European Union](2132).
Europe covers about 10,180,000 [square kilometre](7950) (3,930,000 [square miles](19316)). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area).
As of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe.
Europe contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is [Mount Etna](67078) that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent.
Europe is a major [tourist](9185) attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many [World Heritage Sites](29360) and other attractions. The continent has the largest [Roma](89852) population in the world.
## Origin of name
Europe is named after a princess in [Greek mythology](26817) called "Europa." The [myth](3356) says that [Zeus](10594) [kidnapped](66484) Europa and took her to [Crete](32701), where she became the mother of King [Minos](254737) (from whom Europe’s first civilization gets its name, the Minoans).
The name "Europa" was later used to describe [Greece](2133). Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and [empires](15226), the entire area West of the [Ural Mountains](48519) came to be called "Europa".
## History
The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. [Greek mythology](26817) and the beginning of [western civilization](45053) came from European nations.
Some of the major periods in European history have been:
- [Ancient Greece](13444) ([Minoan](67777), Mycenaean, [Archaic](584359), [Classical](54746), [Hellenistic](554308)): c.2000 BC to 146 BC
- [Ancient Rome](24298) ([Roman kingdom](270716), [Roman Republic](41095) and [Roman Empire](664)): 753BC-476
- [Middle Ages](6593) ([Early](26321), [High](159528), Late): 476 to 1492
- [Early Modern Era](183960) ([Renaissance](25297), Reformation, [Age of Discovery](60261), [Enlightenment](68849)): 1492-1789
- [19th Century](3978), [20th Century](3407) and 21st Century ([French Revolution](21250), [Napoleonic Wars](29336), [Industrial Revolution](14701), [Colonialism](23965), World War 1, [October Revolution](40355), World War 2, [Cold War](1949)): 1789-present.
## Regions and countries
Andreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different [culture](3476)s live closely together, "embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances".
There are several major regions of Europe:
- [Eastern Europe](45071)
- [Central Europe](45118)
- [Western Europe](45219)
- [Northern Europe](45217)
- [Southern](45230) and Southeastern Europe
Within these regions, there are up to 50 [independent European countries](195252) (with the identities of 7 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe.
The largest cities in Europe are [Istanbul](9307), [Moscow](2965), [London](460), St. Petersburg and [Berlin](2922). The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia.
Two European countries, the [United Kingdom](856) and the [Republic of Ireland](5074), are on [island](367)s called the [British Isles](5401).
## Climate
Most of Europe lies in temperate climate zones.
However, there are many different [climate](1970)s throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees [Celsius](14808) for 4–5 months in the north of Europe. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in [Spain](219832).
## European organizations
- [European Union](2132)
- [Council of Europe](32209)
- [European Court of Human Rights](32473)
- [Union of European Football Associations](31310)
- [Warsaw Pact](45117) Organization (1955-1989)
## European Union
The European Union is a [confederation](193579) of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Twenty of these countries also share the same type of [money](479): the [euro](2139).
|
**Europe** is the western part of the continent of Eurasia, often thought of as its own continent. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia and the Bosporus strait in Turkey.
Europe is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the Atlantic Ocean. To the north is the Arctic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea separates Southeastern Europe from the continent of Africa. On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and Ural Mountains.
There are at least 44 or 50 countries in Europe (the European identities of 7 countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the European Union.
Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometre (3,930,000 square miles). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area).
As of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe.
Europe contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is Mount Etna that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent.
Europe is a major tourist attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many World Heritage Sites and other attractions. The continent has the largest Roma population in the world.
## Origin of name
Europe is named after a princess in Greek mythology called "Europa." The myth says that Zeus kidnapped Europa and took her to Crete, where she became the mother of King Minos (from whom Europe’s first civilization gets its name, the Minoans).
The name "Europa" was later used to describe Greece. Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and empires, the entire area West of the Ural Mountains came to be called "Europa".
## History
The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. Greek mythology and the beginning of western civilization came from European nations.
Some of the major periods in European history have been:
- Ancient Greece (Minoan, Mycenaean, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic): c.2000 BC to 146 BC
- Ancient Rome (Roman kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire): 753BC-476
- Middle Ages (Early, High, Late): 476 to 1492
- Early Modern Era (Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Discovery, Enlightenment): 1492-1789
- 19th Century, 20th Century and 21st Century (French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, Industrial Revolution, Colonialism, World War 1, October Revolution, World War 2, Cold War): 1789-present.
## Regions and countries
Andreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different cultures live closely together, "embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances".
There are several major regions of Europe:
- Eastern Europe
- Central Europe
- Western Europe
- Northern Europe
- Southern and Southeastern Europe
Within these regions, there are up to 50 independent European countries (with the identities of 7 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe.
The largest cities in Europe are Istanbul, Moscow, London, St. Petersburg and Berlin. The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia.
Two European countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, are on islands called the British Isles.
## Climate
Most of Europe lies in temperate climate zones.
However, there are many different climates throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees Celsius for 4–5 months in the north of Europe. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in Spain.
## European organizations
- European Union
- Council of Europe
- European Court of Human Rights
- Union of European Football Associations
- Warsaw Pact Organization (1955-1989)
## European Union
The European Union is a confederation of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Twenty of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
|
high
| false
| false
|
217
|
Encyclopedia
|
An **encyclopedia** is a collection, usually a book or [website](908), of [information](3609). Some are known as encyclopedic [dictionaries](206).An encyclopedia contains a lot of information.
### Overview
All encyclopedias were printed, until the late 20th [century](3261), when some were on [CDs](99040) and the [internet](362). 21st century encyclopedias are mostly online by internet. The largest encyclopedia in the [English language](2843) is [English Wikipedia](47242), which has more than 6 million articles. The second largest is the _[Encyclopædia Britannica](9440)_, which is the largest one that is [printed](46768). Either kind of encyclopedia can inform us on various topics.
### Ancient times
Book series were used to summarize all knowledge have been published for [thousands of years](7380). A famous early one was called _Natural History_ by [Pliny the Elder](302105). The name "encyclopedia" is from the [16th century](14230) and meant "complete knowledge". The [French](3597) _[Encyclopédie](294692)_ of [Denis Diderot](294697) was the first that had major parts written by many people from all around the world.
### Modern times
After the [printing press](32435) was [invented](7714), dictionaries with long [definitions](207) began to be called encyclopedias that were [books](3686) that has articles or [subjects](421066) For example, a [dictionary](206) of science, if it included [essays](66953) or [paragraphs](9686), it was thought of as an encyclopedia or knowledgeable book on the subject of science. Some encyclopedias then put essays on more than one subject in [alphabetical order](39804) instead of grouping them together by subject. The word, encyclopedia, was put in the title of some encyclopedias.
#### Publishers
Companies such as _[Britannica](9440)_ were started for the purpose of publishing encyclopedias for sale to individuals, and for public use in libraries. Akin to dictionaries, these publishers hired hundreds of experts to write articles. Some internet encyclopedias allowed their paying customers to submit articles from other encyclopedias. Other internet encyclopedias accepted writing from non-paying users – users not signed in – of the encyclopedia.
## Types of encyclopedias
There are different types of encyclopedias. Some are general and have pages on lots of topics. The English language _[Encyclopædia Britannica](9440)_ and German _Brockhaus_ are general encyclopedias. Some are about specific topics.
#### Specialized encyclopedias
There are encyclopedias of [medicine](3793) or [philosophy](590). Others include the _[Dictionary of National Biography](1038157)_, the _Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships_, and _Black's Law Dictionary_. There are also encyclopedias that cover many topics with one perspective or one cultural [bias](11549), including the [Conservapedia](249457) and _[Great Soviet Encyclopedia](838486)_.
There are two main ways of organizing printed encyclopedias: from A to Z or by [categories](975780). Most encyclopedias go by A to Z. Many [dictionaries](206) have similar information to encyclopedias.
#### Encyclopedic dictionaries
- The Compact Edition of the _Oxford English Dictionary_. Volume I A–M, volume II NZ. 1971. Oxford University Press.
- _Webster’s Third New International Dictionary_ . . . Unabridged . . . Merriam-Webster. 1961. Encyclopedia. Springfield, MA: G & C Merriam Company.
- _Fowler's Modern English Usage_. Fowler H.W; 2nd revised edition by Gower E. Oxford University Press.
## Related pages
- [Taoism](23663)
- [Confucianism](14829)
- [Western philosophy](324591)
- _[Encyclopaedia Hebraica](204209)_
- _[Encyclopaedia Metallum](71722)_
- _[Encyclopædia Britannica](9440)_
- [Ancient Greek philosophy](595105)
## Other websites
- [JustPedia](https://justapedia.org/)
|
An **encyclopedia** is a collection, usually a book or website, of information. Some are known as encyclopedic dictionaries.An encyclopedia contains a lot of information.
### Overview
All encyclopedias were printed, until the late 20th century, when some were on CDs and the internet. 21st century encyclopedias are mostly online by internet. The largest encyclopedia in the English language is English Wikipedia, which has more than 6 million articles. The second largest is the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, which is the largest one that is printed. Either kind of encyclopedia can inform us on various topics.
### Ancient times
Book series were used to summarize all knowledge have been published for thousands of years. A famous early one was called _Natural History_ by Pliny the Elder. The name "encyclopedia" is from the 16th century and meant "complete knowledge". The French _Encyclopédie_ of Denis Diderot was the first that had major parts written by many people from all around the world.
### Modern times
After the printing press was invented, dictionaries with long definitions began to be called encyclopedias that were books that has articles or subjects For example, a dictionary of science, if it included essays or paragraphs, it was thought of as an encyclopedia or knowledgeable book on the subject of science. Some encyclopedias then put essays on more than one subject in alphabetical order instead of grouping them together by subject. The word, encyclopedia, was put in the title of some encyclopedias.
#### Publishers
Companies such as _Britannica_ were started for the purpose of publishing encyclopedias for sale to individuals, and for public use in libraries. Akin to dictionaries, these publishers hired hundreds of experts to write articles. Some internet encyclopedias allowed their paying customers to submit articles from other encyclopedias. Other internet encyclopedias accepted writing from non-paying users – users not signed in – of the encyclopedia.
## Types of encyclopedias
There are different types of encyclopedias. Some are general and have pages on lots of topics. The English language _Encyclopædia Britannica_ and German _Brockhaus_ are general encyclopedias. Some are about specific topics.
#### Specialized encyclopedias
There are encyclopedias of medicine or philosophy. Others include the _Dictionary of National Biography_, the _Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships_, and _Black's Law Dictionary_. There are also encyclopedias that cover many topics with one perspective or one cultural bias, including the Conservapedia and _Great Soviet Encyclopedia_.
There are two main ways of organizing printed encyclopedias: from A to Z or by categories. Most encyclopedias go by A to Z. Many dictionaries have similar information to encyclopedias.
#### Encyclopedic dictionaries
- The Compact Edition of the _Oxford English Dictionary_. Volume I A–M, volume II NZ. 1971. Oxford University Press.
- _Webster’s Third New International Dictionary_ . . . Unabridged . . . Merriam-Webster. 1961. Encyclopedia. Springfield, MA: G & C Merriam Company.
- _Fowler's Modern English Usage_. Fowler H.W; 2nd revised edition by Gower E. Oxford University Press.
## Related pages
- Taoism
- Confucianism
- Western philosophy
- _Encyclopaedia Hebraica_
- _Encyclopaedia Metallum_
- _Encyclopædia Britannica_
- Ancient Greek philosophy
## Other websites
- JustPedia
|
medium
| false
| false
|
218
|
Earth science
|
**Earth science** is an all-embracing term for the [science](700)s related to the planet Earth. Earth science may also be called **geoscience**. Geoscience is the study of the [architecture](49) of the Earth.
|
**Earth science** is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science may also be called **geoscience**. Geoscience is the study of the architecture of the Earth.
|
medium
| true
| false
|
219
|
Earth
|
**Earth** is the third [planet](639) from the [Sun](44408) and the only place we know of where [life](425) exists. One big reason life can exist here is that Earth is an “ocean world.” This means it has a lot of [water](939) on its surface, and it is the only planet in our [Solar System](800) with liquid water that life can use. Most of Earth’s water is in the [ocean](103595)s, which cover about 71% of the planet’s surface. The rest, about 29%, is land. Most of this land is grouped into large continents, like [North America](557), [Africa](1942), and [Asia](1994), which are mostly humid and covered with [plant](628)s. Even the icy parts at the [North](2028) and [South Pole](1977)s hold more water in their [ice sheet](420596)s than all of the [lake](4031)s, [river](673)s, and [underground water](195174) combined.
Earth’s outer layer, called the crust, is made of big pieces called tectonic plates that slowly move around. When these plates push against each other, they can create [mountain](3924)s, [volcano](4483)es, and [earthquake](2081)s. You can think of it like giant puzzle pieces slowly sliding and bumping into each other. Deep inside Earth, there is a liquid outer core. This spinning liquid creates a [magnetic field](29209) around the planet, called a [magnetosphere](67667). The magnetosphere works like a protective shield, keeping most of the dangerous [solar wind](126603)s and [cosmic radiation](241923) from reaching the surface, which helps life survive.
## Infobox (planet)
- **background**: LightSteelBlue
- **name**: Earth
- **symbol**: and
- **image**: The Blue Marble, AS17-148-22727.jpg
- **image alt**: Photograph of Earth taken by the Apollo 17 mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
- **caption**: _The Blue Marble_, Apollo 17, December 1972
- **time periastron**: 2023-Jan-04
- **asc node**: – J2000 ecliptic
- **satellites**: 1, the Moon
- **allsatellites**: yes
- **flattening**: 1/ (ETRS89)
- **surface grav**:
(exactly 1 Standard gravity, g<sub>0</sub>)
- **moment of inertia factor**: 0.3307
- **rot velocity**: 1674.4 km/h
- **single temperature**:
(Effective temperature, blackbody temperature)
- **atmosphere**: yes
- **temp name1**:
- **min temp 1**: −89.2 °C
- **mean temp 1**: 14.76 °C
- **max temp 1**: 56.7 °C
- **abs magnitude**: −3.99
- **surface pressure**: (at sea level)
- **atmosphere composition**: Source:
- **note**: no
|
**Earth** is the third planet from the Sun and the only place we know of where life exists. One big reason life can exist here is that Earth is an “ocean world.” This means it has a lot of water on its surface, and it is the only planet in our Solar System with liquid water that life can use. Most of Earth’s water is in the oceans, which cover about 71% of the planet’s surface. The rest, about 29%, is land. Most of this land is grouped into large continents, like North America, Africa, and Asia, which are mostly humid and covered with plants. Even the icy parts at the North and South Poles hold more water in their ice sheets than all of the lakes, rivers, and underground water combined.
Earth’s outer layer, called the crust, is made of big pieces called tectonic plates that slowly move around. When these plates push against each other, they can create mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. You can think of it like giant puzzle pieces slowly sliding and bumping into each other. Deep inside Earth, there is a liquid outer core. This spinning liquid creates a magnetic field around the planet, called a magnetosphere. The magnetosphere works like a protective shield, keeping most of the dangerous solar winds and cosmic radiation from reaching the surface, which helps life survive.
## Infobox (planet)
- **background**: LightSteelBlue
- **name**: Earth
- **symbol**: and
- **image**: The Blue Marble, AS17-148-22727.jpg
- **image alt**: Photograph of Earth taken by the Apollo 17 mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
- **caption**: _The Blue Marble_, Apollo 17, December 1972
- **time periastron**: 2023-Jan-04
- **asc node**: – J2000 ecliptic
- **satellites**: 1, the Moon
- **allsatellites**: yes
- **flattening**: 1/ (ETRS89)
- **surface grav**:
(exactly 1 Standard gravity, g<sub>0</sub>)
- **moment of inertia factor**: 0.3307
- **rot velocity**: 1674.4 km/h
- **single temperature**:
(Effective temperature, blackbody temperature)
- **atmosphere**: yes
- **temp name1**:
- **min temp 1**: −89.2 °C
- **mean temp 1**: 14.76 °C
- **max temp 1**: 56.7 °C
- **abs magnitude**: −3.99
- **surface pressure**: (at sea level)
- **atmosphere composition**: Source:
- **note**: no
|
high
| true
| false
|
221
|
Et cetera
|
**Et cetera** [means](467197) "and the rest" in [Latin](6592). It is typically used in [English](2843) to continue a [list](17414) longer than what can be [written](3681). The [word](911) _et cetera_ is often written as **etc.**. It is also rarely written as _&c_, or _[&](468379)_. It is the same as _et_ ‒ formed by the joining of "e" and "t" into a single [letter](591390).
## Examples
- "Jane has a lot of [pets](608). She has [cats](2815), [dogs](3632), cows, [horses](11275), [rabbits](22016), [kangaroos](17365), **etc.**"
- "Rocco [ordered](244635) a lot of [chips](48533). He ordered [cheese](171) puffs, potato chips, [Pringles](685735), **etc.**"
- "Robert ordered a large [amount](3543) of groceries to [stock](1002172) for later. He ordered [eggs](17649), [carrots](7231), [tomatoes](15717), [potatoes](626) **etc.**"
|
**Et cetera** means "and the rest" in Latin. It is typically used in English to continue a list longer than what can be written. The word _et cetera_ is often written as **etc.**. It is also rarely written as _&c_, or _&_. It is the same as _et_ ‒ formed by the joining of "e" and "t" into a single letter.
## Examples
- "Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, rabbits, kangaroos, **etc.**"
- "Rocco ordered a lot of chips. He ordered cheese puffs, potato chips, Pringles, **etc.**"
- "Robert ordered a large amount of groceries to stock for later. He ordered eggs, carrots, tomatoes, potatoes **etc.**"
|
medium
| false
| false
|
224
|
Experiment
|
An **experiment** is a test of an [idea](18603) or a method. It is often used by [scientist](748)s and [engineer](22953)s. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of [scientific method](3280). Many experiments are **controlled experiments** or even [blind experiment](418249)s. Many are done in a [laboratory](46122). But [thought experiment](34557)s are done in [mind](8568).
Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that [gravity](2901) could affect [light](3987), it took a few years before astronomers could test it. [General relativity](8799) predicts that the path of light is bent in a [gravitational field](403756); light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant [quasar](72930)s being deflected as it passes the [Sun](44408).
Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.
- "The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". – [Karl Popper](98456)
## Controlled experiments
A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the [placebo](55250) or an older treatment would be the [control](1084165) group.
## Difference with observational study
An [observation](1232320)al study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables.
## Famous experiments
- [Galileo Galilei](4052) did some experiments about [free fall](194140) (1623)
- [Benjamin Franklin](18773) showed that [lightning](26339) is a form of [electricity](7163) (1752)
- The [Michelson–Morley experiment](52452) proved a flaw in old [physics](591), and prompted Einstein's work (1887)
- [Ivan Pavlov](135568) did some experiments about the [classical conditioning](177313) of [dog](3632)s (1927)
- The [Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment](282632) proved DNA was the [molecule](520) which caused [heredity](213374) (1944)
- [Stanley Milgram](423685) showed that people follow orders; this became known as the [Milgram experiment](194122) (1961)
## References
- Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. _Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
## Related pages
- [Experimental physics](957296)
- [Experimental psychology](922993)
|
An **experiment** is a test of an idea or a method. It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are **controlled experiments** or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind.
Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.
Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.
- "The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". – Karl Popper
## Controlled experiments
A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group.
## Difference with observational study
An observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables.
## Famous experiments
- Galileo Galilei did some experiments about free fall (1623)
- Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning is a form of electricity (1752)
- The Michelson–Morley experiment proved a flaw in old physics, and prompted Einstein's work (1887)
- Ivan Pavlov did some experiments about the classical conditioning of dogs (1927)
- The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment proved DNA was the molecule which caused heredity (1944)
- Stanley Milgram showed that people follow orders; this became known as the Milgram experiment (1961)
## References
- Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. _Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
## Related pages
- Experimental physics
- Experimental psychology
|
medium
| false
| false
|
226
|
Ethics
|
**Ethics** is the study of [good and bad](113865) behavior. It is one of the main parts of [philosophy](590). Ethics tries to answer [question](3448)s like:
- What [action](586154)s are [good](137505)? What actions are [evil](7733)?
- How can we tell the [difference](61308)?
- Are good and evil the same?
- How should we make hard [decision](13981)s that might help or hurt other people?
- How do our actions affect others?
## Ideas about ethics
When discussing ethics, the philosophy is generally separated into:
- thinking about [morality](49279),
- the involvement of [science](700),
- the freedom of people to decide for themselves how to [act](143788) within their own [belief](18135)s.
_Morality_ is what someone thinks or feels is good or bad. There are many different moralities, but they share some things. For example, most people think that [murder](3706) (killing somebody) is wrong. (compare [Exodus](23334) 20:13) Some philosophers hope to find more things that moralities [share](46681). They think that ethics should use the [scientific method](3280) to [study](232154) things that people think are good or bad. Their work can be used to [test](823) the fairness of a situation, such as how people should [treat](63139) each other. An [example](36059) of this [kind](44260) of thinking is the [categorical imperative](60431). Many countries have laws based on this [idea](18603) of fairness.
## What is ethics used for?
Understanding ethics can help people decide what to do when they have [choice](38290)s. Many philosophers think that doing anything or making any [choice](38290) is a part of ethics.
Ethics is part of other [field](51923)s of study in many ways. Here are some ways:
- Ethics is part of the study of [religion](653). In religion, people often learn what is good or bad from what they believe about [God](305) (or gods). Some important ideas about what is good or bad have come from religion. See [Ten Commandments](845).
- Some theories of [economics](246) say ethics has to do with [money](479). Money is a big part of most people's lives. Thinking about morality can be important in economics. For example, there is a saying about ethics taken from the [Bible](2866) that 'the [love](9586) of money is the root of all kinds of [evil](7733)' (1 Timothy).The philosophy of [Marxism](4775) also says that a few people using money in the wrong way can hurt many other people.
- Government policy can be affected by what [politicians](592) think is ethical. Politicians try to create laws that help everyone do what is right. Political debates happen when the people who make public policy do not agree about what is right.
- In work, thinking about ethics can help with hard questions. Work can be like both economics and politics. Workers have to make money and follow laws. But the best way to do both is not always easy to know. The study of this is called business ethics
- People like doctors and [nurse](12364)s have to make hard choices about how to care for people. Sometimes the person being cared for, their [family](3284) or the doctor do not agree what is best for them. Also, choices have to be made if there are enough [resource](59129)s to help all. The study of this is called [medical ethics](13938). Similar studies for specific professions include [bioethics](132189) and legal ethics.
- Discussing ethics can also be a way to stop people fighting or starting a war. By talking about ethics, people hope to get what they want without being violent. This works when all people agree that [peace](648) is very important. But not everyone agrees about what is right or wrong. So, sometimes anger can make it hard to talk without fighting.
Along with [aesthetics](13149) ethics forms part of axiology, the philosophy of what people like.
## Related pages
- [Conflict of interest](285179)
- [Deontological ethics](416522)
- [Ethical tradition](13467)
- [Morality](49279)
- [Utilitarianism](6114)
- [Virtue](137505)
- _[The Republic](13148)_, a book by [Plato](3684) that says that people who have power should use ethics to make choices.
- _[The Prince](9743)_, a book by [Niccolò Machiavelli](5032) that says that people who have power should not use ethics to make choices.
## Further reading
- [Aristotle](4494), _[Nicomachean Ethics](1193258)_
- The [London Philosophy Study Guide](http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/) offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [Ethics](http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Ethics.htm)
- _Encyclopedia of Ethics_. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, peer-reviewed articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, [Western philosophy](324591).
- [Blackburn, S.](432397) (2001). [_Being good: A short introduction to ethics_. Oxford: Oxford University Press.](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51644518)
- De Finance, Joseph, _An Ethical Inquiry_, Rome, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1991.
- [Derrida, J.](353625) 1995, _The Gift of Death_, translated by David Wills, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Fagothey, Austin, _Right and Reason_, Tan Books & Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000.
- Solomon, R.C. _Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources_, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
- Vendemiati, Aldo, _In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics_, Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004.
- John Newton, Ph.D. _Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century_, 2000. .
- Guy Cools & Pascal Gielen, The Ethics of Art. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2014.
- Lafollette, Hugh [ed.]: _Ethics in Practice: An Anthology._ Wiley Blackwell, 4th edition, Oxford 2014.
## Other websites
- [Brute Ethics:](http://www.animalethics.org.uk) animal ethics encyclopedia
|
**Ethics** is the study of good and bad behavior. It is one of the main parts of philosophy. Ethics tries to answer questions like:
- What actions are good? What actions are evil?
- How can we tell the difference?
- Are good and evil the same?
- How should we make hard decisions that might help or hurt other people?
- How do our actions affect others?
## Ideas about ethics
When discussing ethics, the philosophy is generally separated into:
- thinking about morality,
- the involvement of science,
- the freedom of people to decide for themselves how to act within their own beliefs.
_Morality_ is what someone thinks or feels is good or bad. There are many different moralities, but they share some things. For example, most people think that murder (killing somebody) is wrong. (compare Exodus 20:13) Some philosophers hope to find more things that moralities share. They think that ethics should use the scientific method to study things that people think are good or bad. Their work can be used to test the fairness of a situation, such as how people should treat each other. An example of this kind of thinking is the categorical imperative. Many countries have laws based on this idea of fairness.
## What is ethics used for?
Understanding ethics can help people decide what to do when they have choices. Many philosophers think that doing anything or making any choice is a part of ethics.
Ethics is part of other fields of study in many ways. Here are some ways:
- Ethics is part of the study of religion. In religion, people often learn what is good or bad from what they believe about God (or gods). Some important ideas about what is good or bad have come from religion. See Ten Commandments.
- Some theories of economics say ethics has to do with money. Money is a big part of most people's lives. Thinking about morality can be important in economics. For example, there is a saying about ethics taken from the Bible that 'the love of money is the root of all kinds of evil' (1 Timothy).The philosophy of Marxism also says that a few people using money in the wrong way can hurt many other people.
- Government policy can be affected by what politicians think is ethical. Politicians try to create laws that help everyone do what is right. Political debates happen when the people who make public policy do not agree about what is right.
- In work, thinking about ethics can help with hard questions. Work can be like both economics and politics. Workers have to make money and follow laws. But the best way to do both is not always easy to know. The study of this is called business ethics
- People like doctors and nurses have to make hard choices about how to care for people. Sometimes the person being cared for, their family or the doctor do not agree what is best for them. Also, choices have to be made if there are enough resources to help all. The study of this is called medical ethics. Similar studies for specific professions include bioethics and legal ethics.
- Discussing ethics can also be a way to stop people fighting or starting a war. By talking about ethics, people hope to get what they want without being violent. This works when all people agree that peace is very important. But not everyone agrees about what is right or wrong. So, sometimes anger can make it hard to talk without fighting.
Along with aesthetics ethics forms part of axiology, the philosophy of what people like.
## Related pages
- Conflict of interest
- Deontological ethics
- Ethical tradition
- Morality
- Utilitarianism
- Virtue
- _The Republic_, a book by Plato that says that people who have power should use ethics to make choices.
- _The Prince_, a book by Niccolò Machiavelli that says that people who have power should not use ethics to make choices.
## Further reading
- Aristotle, _Nicomachean Ethics_
- The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Ethics
- _Encyclopedia of Ethics_. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, peer-reviewed articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, Western philosophy.
- Blackburn, S. (2001). _Being good: A short introduction to ethics_. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- De Finance, Joseph, _An Ethical Inquiry_, Rome, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1991.
- Derrida, J. 1995, _The Gift of Death_, translated by David Wills, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Fagothey, Austin, _Right and Reason_, Tan Books & Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000.
- Solomon, R.C. _Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources_, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
- Vendemiati, Aldo, _In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics_, Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004.
- John Newton, Ph.D. _Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century_, 2000. .
- Guy Cools & Pascal Gielen, The Ethics of Art. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2014.
- Lafollette, Hugh [ed.]: _Ethics in Practice: An Anthology._ Wiley Blackwell, 4th edition, Oxford 2014.
## Other websites
- Brute Ethics: animal ethics encyclopedia
|
medium
| false
| false
|
227
|
E Prime
|
**E Prime** (it means **English Prime**) defines a way of speaking [English](2843) without using the verb "to be" in any way ("be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like "to become," "to remain," and "to equal" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the "thing" does not actually "act". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement "Mistakes were made" to "Joe made mistakes." This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate.
## What E Prime is
D. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of [General Semantics](2044). The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently.
Students of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say "This cat **is** soft" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside "object" of the cat is the "same as" the inside experience of "softness". Instead, E Prime users say "This cat **feels** soft TO ME" to remind themselves of the following:
1. That their experience of "softness" involves both the outside "object" called "cat" and the eyes, hands, brain and [nervous system](52871) of the observer.
1. That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat.
1. That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or look or feel wet or matted with dirt.)
## What E Prime is not
Although languages like [Russian](2991), [Arabic](8522), [Turkish](29741), and [Cantonese](36400) do not always use a separate verb for "to be," they do have the idea of "being." For example, an English speaker might say "This apple is red." An Arabic speaker might say "This apple red." Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say "This apple looks red to me" to remind themselves that "seeing red" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple.
Many teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than "to be." To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime.
## Different functions of 'to be'
In English, 'to be' can have different functions:
1. It talks about [identity](124043): _The cat is my only pet_, _The cat is [Garfield](7587)_
1. It talks about belonging to a class, or a group: _The cat is an animal_
1. It can talk about properties: _The cat is furry_
1. It can be an [auxiliary verb](587027): _The cat is sleeping_, _The cat is bitten by the dog_
1. It can talk about [existence](37242): _There is a cat_
1. It can talk about location: _The cat is here_
|
**E Prime** (it means **English Prime**) defines a way of speaking English without using the verb "to be" in any way ("be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like "to become," "to remain," and "to equal" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the "thing" does not actually "act". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement "Mistakes were made" to "Joe made mistakes." This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate.
## What E Prime is
D. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently.
Students of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say "This cat **is** soft" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside "object" of the cat is the "same as" the inside experience of "softness". Instead, E Prime users say "This cat **feels** soft TO ME" to remind themselves of the following:
1. That their experience of "softness" involves both the outside "object" called "cat" and the eyes, hands, brain and nervous system of the observer.
1. That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat.
1. That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or look or feel wet or matted with dirt.)
## What E Prime is not
Although languages like Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not always use a separate verb for "to be," they do have the idea of "being." For example, an English speaker might say "This apple is red." An Arabic speaker might say "This apple red." Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say "This apple looks red to me" to remind themselves that "seeing red" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple.
Many teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than "to be." To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime.
## Different functions of 'to be'
In English, 'to be' can have different functions:
1. It talks about identity: _The cat is my only pet_, _The cat is Garfield_
1. It talks about belonging to a class, or a group: _The cat is an animal_
1. It can talk about properties: _The cat is furry_
1. It can be an auxiliary verb: _The cat is sleeping_, _The cat is bitten by the dog_
1. It can talk about existence: _There is a cat_
1. It can talk about location: _The cat is here_
|
low
| false
| false
|
230
|
Einstein on the Beach
|
***Einstein on the Beach*** is an [opera](89423) written by the minimalist [composer](7687) [Philip Glass](13593) and theater director and designer [Robert Wilson](323874). It was first acted for an audience in [Avignon](30153), [France](291) in 1976.
It is a single act opera, about five hours long with no [intermission](11600). Because of the length and the minimalist ([repetitive](211715)) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. Glass's music tends to cycle round, but does not exactly repeat itself. Admittedly, he has described himself as a composer of "music with repetitive structures". Though his earlier music fits what is normally called "minimalist", he has since evolved stylistically.
|
***Einstein on the Beach*** is an opera written by the minimalist composer Philip Glass and theater director and designer Robert Wilson. It was first acted for an audience in Avignon, France in 1976.
It is a single act opera, about five hours long with no intermission. Because of the length and the minimalist (repetitive) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. Glass's music tends to cycle round, but does not exactly repeat itself. Admittedly, he has described himself as a composer of "music with repetitive structures". Though his earlier music fits what is normally called "minimalist", he has since evolved stylistically.
|
low
| false
| false
|
231
|
English
|
**English** can mean:
- From or about the country [England](3047)
- [English people](17307)
- [English language](2843)
- The [Amish](51748) word for somebody who is not in their group
- Avoirdupois, a system of measurement sometimes called "English".
- [English opening](236028), a chess opening
- [English, Indiana](739698), the county seat of Crawford County
|
**English** can mean:
- From or about the country England
- English people
- English language
- The Amish word for somebody who is not in their group
- Avoirdupois, a system of measurement sometimes called "English".
- English opening, a chess opening
- English, Indiana, the county seat of Crawford County
|
medium
| false
| false
|
234
|
Ethnic group
|
An **ethnic group** is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same [ancestor](19655)s, speak the same [language](419), or have the same [culture](3476), which could sometimes include [religion](653). They often live in the same or surrounding area.
Sometimes almost all of the people in one [country](121) are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.
The [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](311200) ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own [language](419).
An example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples and [Roma people](89852).
## Related terms
- Supraethnicity or supra-ethnicity: a grouping of several interrelated ethnicities that have similar but unique [cultures](3476).
## Related pages
- [Ethnic groups of the United States](264110)
- [Minority group](142648)
|
An **ethnic group** is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area.
Sometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language.
An example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples and Roma people.
## Related terms
- Supraethnicity or supra-ethnicity: a grouping of several interrelated ethnicities that have similar but unique cultures.
## Related pages
- Ethnic groups of the United States
- Minority group
|
medium
| false
| false
|
236
|
Ewe
|
**Ewe** might mean:
- A female sheep
- Ewe language
|
**Ewe** might mean:
- A female sheep
- Ewe language
|
medium
| false
| false
|
242
|
Ebola virus
|
**Ebola virus** or **Ebola virus disease (EVD)**, often shortened to **Ebola**, is a very dangerous [virus](5757). It belongs to the family _Filoviridae._ Four different types of Ebola virus can cause a severe [disease](4874) which is often fatal. Ebola infection causes hemorrhagic [fever](18965) which starts suddenly. "Hemorrhagic" means that the victim will [bleed](334341) a lot, inside and outside of their body. The virus attacks almost every organ and [tissue](13997) of the [human body](353), causing multiple organs to fail at once. Out of every 100 people who get Ebola, on average 25 to 90 die.
The virus was first found in [Sudan](15047). It is mostly found in [Africa](1942), with very few cases in [Europe](216) and the [United States](219587).
## Transmission
The Ebola virus that makes people sick lives in the [blood](2950) and other liquids and organs in some kinds of non-human animals without killing them. Scientists think the animals it lives in are mainly some kinds of monkeys or fruit bats. When people touch animals that have the virus, or secretions that came out of those animals, they can get sick.
Ebola cannot be caught through the air, or by being near sick people. The virus can only go from [liquid](7870)s into people's bodies. This means Ebola can be caught by touching a sick person's [blood](2950), [saliva](49298), [mucus](158813), [semen](13940), [diarrhea](196), [vomit](13443), or other fluids that come out of a sick person's body.
If a person does not die from the disease, he can still give other people the infection by having [sex](3856) for nearly another two months after they stop being sick. This is because the virus can still be in the man's [semen](13940) after a long time.
1. Once the virus enters the human body via mucosal surfaces, abrasions or injuries in the skin or by direct parental transmission, it fuses with the cells lining the respiratory tract, eyes, or body cavities.
2. It invades the macrophages and dendritic immune cells and releases its genetic content. The cell explosion triggers the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines initiating a ‘cytokine storm’. The genetic material takes over the cell machinery to replicate itself; new copies of the virus are formed and released into the system.
3. The virus then, goes on to attack spleen, kidneys and even the [brain](4365). The blood vessels leak blood and fluid into the surrounding tissues. This atypical clotting and bleeding at the same time manifests externally in the form of rashes.
4. The virus causes the shutdown of other vital organs such as liver and lungs too. In fact, it is able to invade almost all human cells through different attachment mechanisms for each cell type (except for lymphocytes). The very cells that are meant to fight infection are used as carriers to spread infection to other body parts
5. It has been found that the ebola-infected cells do not undergo normal apoptosis, but exhibit vacuolization and signs of necrosis.
## Symptoms
The symptoms of Ebola disease can develop between 2 to 21 days after a person is infected with the virus. When people get Ebola, the first [symptom](13519)s may look like other diseases. People may develop "dry" symptoms such as [fever](18965), fatigue, weakness, sore throat, joint pain and [headache](18964). Sometimes, people think they may have [malaria](13448) or typhoid fever.
Eventually, individuals get much sicker and experience "wet" symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and belly pain. They may also start to have unexplained bleeding inside and outside the body which can include having [blood](2950) in the stool, blood in [vomit](13443).As the disease progresses, people can go into [shock](41904) from excess fluid loss, which means low [blood pressure](40804), fast pulse ([heart](13432) rate), and low [blood circulation](13451) to the body leading to organ failure.
## Treatment
Currently there are two medications approved by the United States [Food and Drug Administration](263318) (FDA) to treat Ebola Disease: Inmazeb and Ebanga. These medications are made up of monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are a type of [protein](636) that are made in the lab. When these medications are used to treat Ebola, they help the body's natural defense system to stop the virus from multiplying in the body.
People with Ebola also need supportive care to relieve symptoms. Lots of fluid and electrolytes are given to replace the fluids lost from [diarrhea](196), vomiting, and bleeding. Fluid can be given by mouth or through an IV which is a special tube that goes into veins the arm. This process of giving fluid back into the body is called fluid replacement therapy. It is also important to give blood transfusions and medicine in the case of low [blood pressure](40804) which is a [complication](143553) of fluid loss. Medicines can also be given to stop vomiting and diarrhea and to help reduce fever and pain.
## Prevention
To prevent the spread of the Ebola virus during ongoing outbreaks, it is important to practice hand washing and avoid coming into close contact with the body fluids of infected individuals.This includes blood, tears, saliva, semen, sweat, vomit, urine, feces, breast milk and fluid from infected women during labor. In addition, people should avoid contact with items that may have been contaminated with body fluids such as, utensils, clothes, bedding, needles, and medical tools. Individuals with the virus can be separated from those without the virus to reduce the spread of the disease. When in close contact with a person infected with the virus, it is recommended to wear special protective clothing known as personal protective equipment (PPE). The personal protective equipment requires wearing gloves, gowns, protective eye wear, masks and closed-toe shoes.
Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to the West African Ebola epidemic in 2014, but none had yet been approved for use in humans. The Ebola Zaire vaccine also known by its brand name ERVEBO was the first vaccine approved by the FDA in December 2019.The vaccine helps to protect against the Zaire Ebola virus, one of the virus types that causes deadly Ebola Disease. ERVEBO is a single dose vaccine and is safe for individuals aged 12 months and older who at risk of infection. Although the vaccine has been given to pregnant and breastfeeding women in past outbreaks, the vaccine has not been approved for these specific groups. Several countries in Africa have successfully used the vaccine since it was approved including Zambia, Burundi, Ghana, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Another approved vaccine is Zabdeno / Mvabea. This vaccine is a combination vaccine also used against the Zaire Ebola virus.
## Research
[World Community Grid](504277) is a computing project that is seeking possible drug treatments. People donate the spare time on their computers to the project.
## Infobox (disease)
- **name**: Ebola virus disease
- **image**: Ebola virus em.png
- **caption**: Electron microscope picture of the Ebola virus
- **width**: 150
- **diseasesdb**: 18043
- **medlineplus**: 001339
- **emedicinesubj**: med
- **emedicinetopic**: 626
- **meshid**: D019142
|
**Ebola virus** or **Ebola virus disease (EVD)**, often shortened to **Ebola**, is a very dangerous virus. It belongs to the family _Filoviridae._ Four different types of Ebola virus can cause a severe disease which is often fatal. Ebola infection causes hemorrhagic fever which starts suddenly. "Hemorrhagic" means that the victim will bleed a lot, inside and outside of their body. The virus attacks almost every organ and tissue of the human body, causing multiple organs to fail at once. Out of every 100 people who get Ebola, on average 25 to 90 die.
The virus was first found in Sudan. It is mostly found in Africa, with very few cases in Europe and the United States.
## Transmission
The Ebola virus that makes people sick lives in the blood and other liquids and organs in some kinds of non-human animals without killing them. Scientists think the animals it lives in are mainly some kinds of monkeys or fruit bats. When people touch animals that have the virus, or secretions that came out of those animals, they can get sick.
Ebola cannot be caught through the air, or by being near sick people. The virus can only go from liquids into people's bodies. This means Ebola can be caught by touching a sick person's blood, saliva, mucus, semen, diarrhea, vomit, or other fluids that come out of a sick person's body.
If a person does not die from the disease, he can still give other people the infection by having sex for nearly another two months after they stop being sick. This is because the virus can still be in the man's semen after a long time.
1. Once the virus enters the human body via mucosal surfaces, abrasions or injuries in the skin or by direct parental transmission, it fuses with the cells lining the respiratory tract, eyes, or body cavities.
2. It invades the macrophages and dendritic immune cells and releases its genetic content. The cell explosion triggers the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines initiating a ‘cytokine storm’. The genetic material takes over the cell machinery to replicate itself; new copies of the virus are formed and released into the system.
3. The virus then, goes on to attack spleen, kidneys and even the brain. The blood vessels leak blood and fluid into the surrounding tissues. This atypical clotting and bleeding at the same time manifests externally in the form of rashes.
4. The virus causes the shutdown of other vital organs such as liver and lungs too. In fact, it is able to invade almost all human cells through different attachment mechanisms for each cell type (except for lymphocytes). The very cells that are meant to fight infection are used as carriers to spread infection to other body parts
5. It has been found that the ebola-infected cells do not undergo normal apoptosis, but exhibit vacuolization and signs of necrosis.
## Symptoms
The symptoms of Ebola disease can develop between 2 to 21 days after a person is infected with the virus. When people get Ebola, the first symptoms may look like other diseases. People may develop "dry" symptoms such as fever, fatigue, weakness, sore throat, joint pain and headache. Sometimes, people think they may have malaria or typhoid fever.
Eventually, individuals get much sicker and experience "wet" symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and belly pain. They may also start to have unexplained bleeding inside and outside the body which can include having blood in the stool, blood in vomit.As the disease progresses, people can go into shock from excess fluid loss, which means low blood pressure, fast pulse (heart rate), and low blood circulation to the body leading to organ failure.
## Treatment
Currently there are two medications approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat Ebola Disease: Inmazeb and Ebanga. These medications are made up of monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are a type of protein that are made in the lab. When these medications are used to treat Ebola, they help the body's natural defense system to stop the virus from multiplying in the body.
People with Ebola also need supportive care to relieve symptoms. Lots of fluid and electrolytes are given to replace the fluids lost from diarrhea, vomiting, and bleeding. Fluid can be given by mouth or through an IV which is a special tube that goes into veins the arm. This process of giving fluid back into the body is called fluid replacement therapy. It is also important to give blood transfusions and medicine in the case of low blood pressure which is a complication of fluid loss. Medicines can also be given to stop vomiting and diarrhea and to help reduce fever and pain.
## Prevention
To prevent the spread of the Ebola virus during ongoing outbreaks, it is important to practice hand washing and avoid coming into close contact with the body fluids of infected individuals.This includes blood, tears, saliva, semen, sweat, vomit, urine, feces, breast milk and fluid from infected women during labor. In addition, people should avoid contact with items that may have been contaminated with body fluids such as, utensils, clothes, bedding, needles, and medical tools. Individuals with the virus can be separated from those without the virus to reduce the spread of the disease. When in close contact with a person infected with the virus, it is recommended to wear special protective clothing known as personal protective equipment (PPE). The personal protective equipment requires wearing gloves, gowns, protective eye wear, masks and closed-toe shoes.
Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to the West African Ebola epidemic in 2014, but none had yet been approved for use in humans. The Ebola Zaire vaccine also known by its brand name ERVEBO was the first vaccine approved by the FDA in December 2019.The vaccine helps to protect against the Zaire Ebola virus, one of the virus types that causes deadly Ebola Disease. ERVEBO is a single dose vaccine and is safe for individuals aged 12 months and older who at risk of infection. Although the vaccine has been given to pregnant and breastfeeding women in past outbreaks, the vaccine has not been approved for these specific groups. Several countries in Africa have successfully used the vaccine since it was approved including Zambia, Burundi, Ghana, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Another approved vaccine is Zabdeno / Mvabea. This vaccine is a combination vaccine also used against the Zaire Ebola virus.
## Research
World Community Grid is a computing project that is seeking possible drug treatments. People donate the spare time on their computers to the project.
## Infobox (disease)
- **name**: Ebola virus disease
- **image**: Ebola virus em.png
- **caption**: Electron microscope picture of the Ebola virus
- **width**: 150
- **diseasesdb**: 18043
- **medlineplus**: 001339
- **emedicinesubj**: med
- **emedicinetopic**: 626
- **meshid**: D019142
|
medium
| false
| false
|
243
|
Ecology
|
**Ecology** is the branch or aspect of [biology](101) that studies the [biota](231500) (living things), the [environment](13637), and their interactions. It comes from the [Greek](4606) _oikos_ = house; _logos_ = study.
Ecology is the study of [ecosystem](30260)s. Ecosystems describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different scales of organization. Since ecology refers to any form of [biodiversity](47219), ecologists research everything from tiny [bacteria](10861) in [nutrient](56759) [recycling](30844) to the effects of tropical rain forests on the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists who study these interactions are called _ecologists_.
Terrestrial ecoregion and [climate change](66788) research are two areas where ecologists now focus.
There are many practical applications of ecology in [conservation biology](261629), [wetland](55073) management, [natural resource](552) management ([agriculture](71284), [forestry](10907), [fisheries](10000)), city planning (urban ecology), community health, [economics](246), and applied science. It provides a framework for understanding and researching human social interaction.
## Population ecology
Population ecology measures the size of a [population](4037): all the living things from one [species](19654) that live in an place. A population [gets bigger](285726) because of [birth](7637) and movement into a place, and it gets smaller because of [death](209) and movement out of a place. Growth rate is the change in population size divided by the current population size. When a population is small, growth rate does not change, so the population shows exponential growth. Rate of exponential growth depends on how a living thing reproduces. If it has only a few [offspring](931832) (children) which grow slowly, like a human, the rate will be low. If it has a lot of offspring which grow quickly, like a [fruit fly](331306), the rate will be high. Any environment only has enough [natural resource](552)s, such as food, water, or space, for a certain size of population. This size is called the [carrying capacity](274198). When population size is near the carrying capacity, growth rate will become less. The graph of population growth will be an S-shape, called logistic growth.
## Community and ecosystem ecology
A community is all populations of different species that live in the same place. An [ecosystem](30260) is a community and its environment. Ecosystem ecology studies how [energy](4115) and nutrients move through an ecosystem. All living things need [energy](4115) to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. A trophic level is the number of times energy moves from one living thing to another, before reaching a particular living thing. The first trophic level, called producers or [autotrophs](50034), gets energy from the environment. They use the energy to make organic compounds. Most producers, such as plants, take in energy from sunlight, but some take it from [inorganic compounds](48894). Other trophic levels, called consumers or [heterotrophs](47652), get their energy by eating other living things. All animals are consumers, and there are three kinds: [herbivores](4618), [carnivores](2876), and [omnivores](4616). Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat only other animals, and omnivores eat both. [Decomposers](82215) are living things which break down dead things. A [food web](164104) shows the movement of energy in an ecosystem.
### Ecology in politics
Ecology starts many powerful philosophical and political movements - including the conservation movement, wellness movement, environmental movement, and ecology movement we know today. When these are combined with [peace](648) movements and the Six Principles, they are called [green](308) movements. In general, these put ecosystem health first on a list of human moral and political priorities, as the way to achieve better human health and social harmony, and better [economics](246).
People with these beliefs are called political ecologists. Some have organized into the Green Parties, but there are actually political ecologists in most political parties. They very often use arguments from ecology to advance [policy](51920), especially [forest](13253) policy and energy [policy](51920).
Also, ecology means that it is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms.
### Ecology includes economics
Many ecologists also deal with human economics:
- Lynn Margulis says that economics studies how humans make a living, while ecology studies how every other animal makes a living.
- Mike Nickerson says that "economy is three-fifths of ecology", since ecosystems create resources and dispose of waste, which the economy assumes is done "for free".
Ecological economics and human development theory try to separate the economic questions from others, but it is difficult. Many people think economics is just part of ecology now, and that economics that ignores it is wrong. "Natural [capital](46686)" is an example of one theory combining both.
### Ecology and anthropology
Sometimes ecology is compared to [anthropology](2110). Anthropology includes how our bodies and minds are affected by our environment, while ecology includes how our [environment](13637) is affected by our bodies and minds. There is even a type of anthropology called ecological anthropology, which studies how people interact with the environment.
Antoine de Saint-Exupery stated: "The earth teaches us more about ourselves than all the books. Because it resists us. Man discovers himself when he measures himself against the obstacle".
## Related pages
- Prey-predator equations
- [Ecological economics](717905)
- [Ecomuseum](57465)
- [Environmentalism](115099)
- [Sustainable development](26109)
|
**Ecology** is the branch or aspect of biology that studies the biota (living things), the environment, and their interactions. It comes from the Greek _oikos_ = house; _logos_ = study.
Ecology is the study of ecosystems. Ecosystems describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different scales of organization. Since ecology refers to any form of biodiversity, ecologists research everything from tiny bacteria in nutrient recycling to the effects of tropical rain forests on the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists who study these interactions are called _ecologists_.
Terrestrial ecoregion and climate change research are two areas where ecologists now focus.
There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, and applied science. It provides a framework for understanding and researching human social interaction.
## Population ecology
Population ecology measures the size of a population: all the living things from one species that live in an place. A population gets bigger because of birth and movement into a place, and it gets smaller because of death and movement out of a place. Growth rate is the change in population size divided by the current population size. When a population is small, growth rate does not change, so the population shows exponential growth. Rate of exponential growth depends on how a living thing reproduces. If it has only a few offspring (children) which grow slowly, like a human, the rate will be low. If it has a lot of offspring which grow quickly, like a fruit fly, the rate will be high. Any environment only has enough natural resources, such as food, water, or space, for a certain size of population. This size is called the carrying capacity. When population size is near the carrying capacity, growth rate will become less. The graph of population growth will be an S-shape, called logistic growth.
## Community and ecosystem ecology
A community is all populations of different species that live in the same place. An ecosystem is a community and its environment. Ecosystem ecology studies how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. A trophic level is the number of times energy moves from one living thing to another, before reaching a particular living thing. The first trophic level, called producers or autotrophs, gets energy from the environment. They use the energy to make organic compounds. Most producers, such as plants, take in energy from sunlight, but some take it from inorganic compounds. Other trophic levels, called consumers or heterotrophs, get their energy by eating other living things. All animals are consumers, and there are three kinds: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat only other animals, and omnivores eat both. Decomposers are living things which break down dead things. A food web shows the movement of energy in an ecosystem.
### Ecology in politics
Ecology starts many powerful philosophical and political movements - including the conservation movement, wellness movement, environmental movement, and ecology movement we know today. When these are combined with peace movements and the Six Principles, they are called green movements. In general, these put ecosystem health first on a list of human moral and political priorities, as the way to achieve better human health and social harmony, and better economics.
People with these beliefs are called political ecologists. Some have organized into the Green Parties, but there are actually political ecologists in most political parties. They very often use arguments from ecology to advance policy, especially forest policy and energy policy.
Also, ecology means that it is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms.
### Ecology includes economics
Many ecologists also deal with human economics:
- Lynn Margulis says that economics studies how humans make a living, while ecology studies how every other animal makes a living.
- Mike Nickerson says that "economy is three-fifths of ecology", since ecosystems create resources and dispose of waste, which the economy assumes is done "for free".
Ecological economics and human development theory try to separate the economic questions from others, but it is difficult. Many people think economics is just part of ecology now, and that economics that ignores it is wrong. "Natural capital" is an example of one theory combining both.
### Ecology and anthropology
Sometimes ecology is compared to anthropology. Anthropology includes how our bodies and minds are affected by our environment, while ecology includes how our environment is affected by our bodies and minds. There is even a type of anthropology called ecological anthropology, which studies how people interact with the environment.
Antoine de Saint-Exupery stated: "The earth teaches us more about ourselves than all the books. Because it resists us. Man discovers himself when he measures himself against the obstacle".
## Related pages
- Prey-predator equations
- Ecological economics
- Ecomuseum
- Environmentalism
- Sustainable development
|
high
| false
| false
|
246
|
Economics
|
**Economics** is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make [choice](38290)s to get what they [want](940). It has been defined as "the study of scarcity and choice" and is basically about the choices people make. It also studies what affects the [production](46633), distribution and [consumption](455642) of goods and [services](46637) in an [economy](8377).
[Investment](48143) and [income](46846) relate to economics. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and relates to _οἶκος_ _oíkos_ "house" and _νόμος_ _nomos_ "custom" or "law". The [model](345676)s used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from [political economy](50952) and added to them because they wanted to use an [empirical](134481) approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences.
## Subjects and objects in economics
The subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. **Households** offer their "[factors of production](46636)" to companies. This includes labor, land, [capital](46686) (things like machines and buildings) and information. In exchange for their factors of production, households get income which they use to consume (buy) goods from firms representing consumption expenditure.
**Business companies** produce and sell [goods](49359) and [services](46637) and buy factors of production from households and from other companies.
**The state** or [public sector](46902) includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for "public goods" like [street lights or defense system](5594)s, to be available for everyone. The last subject is **foreign countries**. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one's own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad.
The objects (things acted upon) in economic study are [consumer](703277) goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as "usage goods" (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as "purpose goods" (for example, a house or bicycle), and as "services" (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and [environment](13637).
## General economic rules
- All people have to decide between their options.
- The [cost](38959) of goods is what a person gives up for the goods.
- When a person gives up something (like money) to get a good, they also give up other things that they could have gotten instead. This means that the true cost of something is what you give up to get it. This includes [money](479), and the economic benefits ("utility") that you didn't get because you can no longer buy something else.This is called [opportunity cost](145200).
- People choose between options based on the rewards ("incentives") or bad things ("disincentives") they expect from each option. Adding to the rewards for an option will often make more people choose it.
- Trade can make everyone better off.
- Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the [free market](134707), goods will be shared by people and companies making small decisions. The “invisible hand” of the market ([Adam Smith](5122)) states that if everyone tries to get what they want, everyone will be as well-off as they could possibly be.
- Sometimes prices do not fully show the cost or benefit to society. For example, [air pollution](226886) is bad for society, and education is good for society. The government can put a tax (or do something to reduce sales) on items that are bad for [society](689). It can also support (like giving money for) items that are good for society.
- The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by total working hours.
- When there is an increase in the total money supply, or when the cost to [produce](62836) things rises, prices go up. This is called [inflation](14655).
## History
- [18th century](12978) analysis of [wealth](96960)
- [Physiocracy](168958)
- [Classical economics](219131)
- [Marxist economics](16504)
- Austrian economics
- [Neoclassical economics](18577)
- [Welfare economics](435137)
The ideas that economists have depend a lot on the times they live in. For example, [Karl Marx](4473) lived in a time when [worker](35824)s' conditions were very poor, and [John Maynard Keynes](90724) lived through the [Great Depression](22100) of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones.
## Branches of economics
The two main branches of economics are [microeconomics](5775) and [macroeconomics](21510).
Macroeconomics is about the [economy](8377) in general. For example, macroeconomists study things that make a country's wealth go up and things that make millions of people lose their jobs. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and [household](528516)<nowiki/>s spend their money and how businesses operate.
There are a number of other branches of economics:
- [Behavioral economics](446643)
- Business economics
- [Constitutional economics](261795)
- Cultural economics
- [Development economics](651708)
- [Ecological economics](717905)
- Economic geography
- Economic policy Analysis
- [Environmental economics](403784)
- Energy economics
- Financial economics
- Industrial economics
- [Information economics](717852)
- [International economics](729031)
- Labor economics
- Managerial economics
- Mathematical economics or econometrics
- Resource economics
- Urban economics
- Public economics
- descriptive, theoretical and policy economics
- monetary economics
## Famous economists
Famous economists in history include:
- [Adam Smith](5122) (His works include _[The Wealth of Nations](88861)_ and _The Theory of Moral Sentiments_. First introduce the concept of "Invisible Hand").
- Thomas Malthus (Author of _An Essay on the Principle of Population._ Establish the theory of population ).
- [David Ricardo](474042) (First introduce the theory of [Comparative advantage](427766)).
- [Karl Marx](4473) (His works include _Das Kapital_ and _[The Communist Manifesto](276409)_; a famous critique of [Capitalism](12446)).
- [John Maynard Keynes](90724) (Founder of the school of [Keynesian economics](255872)).
- [Milton Friedman](236182) (Proponent of [monetarism](100935). His works include _Capitalism and Freedom_ ).
Famous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, [Wassily Leontief](745230), [Carl Menger](1142396), and [Léon Walras](898769).
## Related pages
- [Political economy](50952)
- [Constitutional economics](261795)
## Other websites
- [Economics](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Economics) Citizendium
|
**Economics** is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make choices to get what they want. It has been defined as "the study of scarcity and choice" and is basically about the choices people make. It also studies what affects the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an economy.
Investment and income relate to economics. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and relates to _οἶκος_ _oíkos_ "house" and _νόμος_ _nomos_ "custom" or "law". The models used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from political economy and added to them because they wanted to use an empirical approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences.
## Subjects and objects in economics
The subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. **Households** offer their "factors of production" to companies. This includes labor, land, capital (things like machines and buildings) and information. In exchange for their factors of production, households get income which they use to consume (buy) goods from firms representing consumption expenditure.
**Business companies** produce and sell goods and services and buy factors of production from households and from other companies.
**The state** or public sector includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for "public goods" like street lights or defense systems, to be available for everyone. The last subject is **foreign countries**. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one's own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad.
The objects (things acted upon) in economic study are consumer goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as "usage goods" (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as "purpose goods" (for example, a house or bicycle), and as "services" (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and environment.
## General economic rules
- All people have to decide between their options.
- The cost of goods is what a person gives up for the goods.
- When a person gives up something (like money) to get a good, they also give up other things that they could have gotten instead. This means that the true cost of something is what you give up to get it. This includes money, and the economic benefits ("utility") that you didn't get because you can no longer buy something else.This is called opportunity cost.
- People choose between options based on the rewards ("incentives") or bad things ("disincentives") they expect from each option. Adding to the rewards for an option will often make more people choose it.
- Trade can make everyone better off.
- Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the free market, goods will be shared by people and companies making small decisions. The “invisible hand” of the market (Adam Smith) states that if everyone tries to get what they want, everyone will be as well-off as they could possibly be.
- Sometimes prices do not fully show the cost or benefit to society. For example, air pollution is bad for society, and education is good for society. The government can put a tax (or do something to reduce sales) on items that are bad for society. It can also support (like giving money for) items that are good for society.
- The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by total working hours.
- When there is an increase in the total money supply, or when the cost to produce things rises, prices go up. This is called inflation.
## History
- 18th century analysis of wealth
- Physiocracy
- Classical economics
- Marxist economics
- Austrian economics
- Neoclassical economics
- Welfare economics
The ideas that economists have depend a lot on the times they live in. For example, Karl Marx lived in a time when workers' conditions were very poor, and John Maynard Keynes lived through the Great Depression of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones.
## Branches of economics
The two main branches of economics are microeconomics and macroeconomics.
Macroeconomics is about the economy in general. For example, macroeconomists study things that make a country's wealth go up and things that make millions of people lose their jobs. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and household<nowiki/>s spend their money and how businesses operate.
There are a number of other branches of economics:
- Behavioral economics
- Business economics
- Constitutional economics
- Cultural economics
- Development economics
- Ecological economics
- Economic geography
- Economic policy Analysis
- Environmental economics
- Energy economics
- Financial economics
- Industrial economics
- Information economics
- International economics
- Labor economics
- Managerial economics
- Mathematical economics or econometrics
- Resource economics
- Urban economics
- Public economics
- descriptive, theoretical and policy economics
- monetary economics
## Famous economists
Famous economists in history include:
- Adam Smith (His works include _The Wealth of Nations_ and _The Theory of Moral Sentiments_. First introduce the concept of "Invisible Hand").
- Thomas Malthus (Author of _An Essay on the Principle of Population._ Establish the theory of population ).
- David Ricardo (First introduce the theory of Comparative advantage).
- Karl Marx (His works include _Das Kapital_ and _The Communist Manifesto_; a famous critique of Capitalism).
- John Maynard Keynes (Founder of the school of Keynesian economics).
- Milton Friedman (Proponent of monetarism. His works include _Capitalism and Freedom_ ).
Famous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, Wassily Leontief, Carl Menger, and Léon Walras.
## Related pages
- Political economy
- Constitutional economics
## Other websites
- Economics Citizendium
|
medium
| false
| false
|
247
|
Chemical element
|
A **chemical element** is a [substance](682) that is made up of only one [type](308010) of [atom](47). Atoms are made up of protons, [neutron](16913)s, and [electron](4006)s.
The number of protons in an atom is called the [atomic number](8407). For example, all atoms with 6 protons are atoms of the chemical element [carbon](4887), and all atoms with 92 protons are atoms of the element [uranium](19146). The number of neutrons in the nucleus does not have to be the same in every atom of an element. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called [isotope](3489)s. Saying that a substance "contains only one type of atom" really means that it contains only atoms that all have the same number of protons.
The number of protons in the nucleus causes its [electric charge](9345). This fixes the number of electrons in its normal ([un-ionized)](171912) state. The electrons in their atomic orbitals determine the element's various chemical properties.
Elements are the basic building blocks for all types of substances. If a substance contains more than one type of atom, it is a [compound](6101) or a [mixture](3257). The smallest particle of a compound is a [molecule](520).
118 different chemical elements are known to modern [chemistry](108). 92 of these elements can be found in [nature](547), and the others can only be made in [laboratories](46122). The human body is made up of 26 elements. The last natural element discovered was uranium, in 1789. The first man-made element was [technetium](42050), in 1937.
Chemical elements are commonly arranged in the [periodic table](637). Where the elements are in the table tells us about their properties relative to the other elements.
## Chemical symbols
Chemical elements are given a unique _chemical symbol_. Chemical symbols are used all over the world. This means that, no matter which language is spoken, there is no confusion about what the symbol means. Chemical symbols of elements almost always come from their English or Latin names. For example, [carbon](4887) has the chemical symbol 'C', and [sodium](5392) has chemical symbol 'Na', after the Latin _natrium_. [Tungsten](41340) is called 'W' after its German name, _wolfram_. 'Au' is the symbol for gold and it comes from the Latin word for gold, _aurum_. Another symbol which comes from Latin is 'Ag'. This is the element [silver](4679) and it comes from the Latin _argentum_. [Lead](14835)'s symbol, 'Pb', comes from the Latin _plumbum_ and the English word [plumber](146289) derives from this as pipes used to be made out of lead. Some more recently discovered elements were named after famous people, like [einsteinium](33395), which was named after [Albert Einstein](2138).
## Compounds
Elements can join (react) to form pure [compounds](6101) (such as [water](939), [salt](6640)s, [oxide](49490)s, and [organic compound](4110)s). In many cases, these compounds have a fixed composition and their own [structure](21702) and [properties](3336). The properties of the compound may be very different from the elements it is made from. [Sodium](5392) is a [metal](3332) that burns when put into water and [chlorine](19375) is a poisonous gas. When they react together they make _sodium chloride_ ([salt](6640)) which is generally harmless in small quantities and edible.
## Mixtures
Some elements mix together in any proportion to form new structures. Such new structures are not compounds. They are called [mixture](3257)s or, when the elements are metals, [alloy](4362)s.
## Isotopes
Most elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An [isotope](3489) is a form of an element with a certain number of neutrons. For example, carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: [carbon-12](120996) (6 neutrons) and carbon-13 (7 neutrons). [Carbon-14](442577) (8 neutrons) is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon. At least two isotopes of each element are known (except for [Oganesson](656129), of which only a few atoms have been made).
## Classification
Elements can be classified based on [physical states](3325). At room temperature and pressure, most elements are [solid](4058)s, only 11 are [gas](3283)es and 2 are [liquid](7870)s.
Elements can also be classified into [metal](3332)s and non-metals. There are many more metals than non-metals.
However, a few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. These elements are called [semimetal](716115)s (or metalloids).
## Related pages
- [Periodic table](637)
|
A **chemical element** is a substance that is made up of only one type of atom. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number. For example, all atoms with 6 protons are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons are atoms of the element uranium. The number of neutrons in the nucleus does not have to be the same in every atom of an element. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Saying that a substance "contains only one type of atom" really means that it contains only atoms that all have the same number of protons.
The number of protons in the nucleus causes its electric charge. This fixes the number of electrons in its normal (un-ionized) state. The electrons in their atomic orbitals determine the element's various chemical properties.
Elements are the basic building blocks for all types of substances. If a substance contains more than one type of atom, it is a compound or a mixture. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule.
118 different chemical elements are known to modern chemistry. 92 of these elements can be found in nature, and the others can only be made in laboratories. The human body is made up of 26 elements. The last natural element discovered was uranium, in 1789. The first man-made element was technetium, in 1937.
Chemical elements are commonly arranged in the periodic table. Where the elements are in the table tells us about their properties relative to the other elements.
## Chemical symbols
Chemical elements are given a unique _chemical symbol_. Chemical symbols are used all over the world. This means that, no matter which language is spoken, there is no confusion about what the symbol means. Chemical symbols of elements almost always come from their English or Latin names. For example, carbon has the chemical symbol 'C', and sodium has chemical symbol 'Na', after the Latin _natrium_. Tungsten is called 'W' after its German name, _wolfram_. 'Au' is the symbol for gold and it comes from the Latin word for gold, _aurum_. Another symbol which comes from Latin is 'Ag'. This is the element silver and it comes from the Latin _argentum_. Lead's symbol, 'Pb', comes from the Latin _plumbum_ and the English word plumber derives from this as pipes used to be made out of lead. Some more recently discovered elements were named after famous people, like einsteinium, which was named after Albert Einstein.
## Compounds
Elements can join (react) to form pure compounds (such as water, salts, oxides, and organic compounds). In many cases, these compounds have a fixed composition and their own structure and properties. The properties of the compound may be very different from the elements it is made from. Sodium is a metal that burns when put into water and chlorine is a poisonous gas. When they react together they make _sodium chloride_ (salt) which is generally harmless in small quantities and edible.
## Mixtures
Some elements mix together in any proportion to form new structures. Such new structures are not compounds. They are called mixtures or, when the elements are metals, alloys.
## Isotopes
Most elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An isotope is a form of an element with a certain number of neutrons. For example, carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 (6 neutrons) and carbon-13 (7 neutrons). Carbon-14 (8 neutrons) is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon. At least two isotopes of each element are known (except for Oganesson, of which only a few atoms have been made).
## Classification
Elements can be classified based on physical states. At room temperature and pressure, most elements are solids, only 11 are gases and 2 are liquids.
Elements can also be classified into metals and non-metals. There are many more metals than non-metals.
However, a few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. These elements are called semimetals (or metalloids).
## Related pages
- Periodic table
|
medium
| false
| false
|
248
|
Egypt
|
**Egypt**, officially the **Arab Republic of Egypt** is a [country](121) in the [Middle East](4368) and the Eastern Mediterranean, located in [North Africa](19031) and [Western Asia](46436).
It is bordered by the [Mediterranean Sea](7621) to the north, the [Southern Levant](54449) compromising the [Gaza Strip](21437) of [Palestine](11270) and [Israel](64543) to the northeast, the [Red Sea](19072) to the east, [Sudan](15047) to the south, and [Libya](14617) to the west; the [Gulf of Aqaba](392687) in the northeast separates Egypt from [Jordan](14629) and [Saudi Arabia](6350).
[Cairo](10985) is the capital, largest city, and leading cultural center, while [Alexandria](11074) is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism. Egypt is famous for its [ancient](26891) [monument](47977)s, such as the [Pyramids](86798) and the [Sphinx](124560)
## History
[Ancient Egypt](15034) has one of the longest histories of any country in the world as it used to be ruled by [pharaoh](7845)s. As a province of the [Roman Empire](664), it became Christian and some Copts remained despite over a thousand years of Muslim rule. The [Fatimid Caliphate](137523) ruled Egypt in the tenth through twelfth centuries. [Mamluk](14201)es ruled it until 1798 when [Napoleon](14820) defeated them. [Muhammad Ali Pasha](313948) soon took over and started a [dynasty](43686) of [Khedive](313211)s under the [Ottoman Empire](16844). The Empire fell apart after [World War I](219834). Egypt became an independent country in 1922 and the khedive became a king. Egypt is a member of the [United Nations](4549) and the [Arab League](17447). It became a [republic](4978) after the Army's [revolution](40652) of 1952.
## Geography
Egypt is a large country, but a large portion of it is [desert](14509). Most people (95% of Egypt's total people) live in areas around the coast of the [Mediterranean Sea](7621) and along the [Nile](18589) River. This includes the cities of [Cairo](10985), [Alexandria](11074), [Aswan](75961), and [Port Said](90483). Not many people live in the desert. Today, Egypt has about 90 million people.
Egypt is divided into 29 areas, called Governorates of Egypt.
## Politics
Egypt is a country that has had many different rulers and many political systems. After [World War II](219837), Egypt was still ruled by a king, [Farouk of Egypt](935025) (11 February 1920 – 18 March 1965). He was the last ruler of the [Muhammad Ali](313948) [dynasty](43686).
Farouk was overthrown on 23 July 1952 by a military coup. The coup was led by Muhammad Naguib, and [Gamal Abdel Nasser](36612). From then on, Egypt had military rulers or rulers who had the backing of the army and many citizens.
Nasser became president, from 1956 to 1970. Later rulers were [Anwar Sadat](276027), and [Hosni Mubarak](20682).
[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](428499) became president in 2014.
### Revolution of 2011
In January 2011, thousands of [protest](38249)ers gathered in [Cairo](10985). They wanted [Hosni Mubarak](20682) to leave office. He had been the [President](4044) for almost 30 years. On February 11, 2011, [Vice President](14213) [Omar Suleiman](354414) made an announcement. He said that Mubarak agreed to leave office. In 2012, Egypt had a democratic election for the post of President. The winner was the [Muslim Brotherhood](276237) candidate, [Mohamed Morsi](407502).
The events which followed are still controversial, but one aspect stands out. Morsi issued a declaration that in effect gave him unlimited powers. He had the power to legislate (make laws) without legal overview by the courts. This caused widespread protests. On 3 July 2013, he was unseated by a military coup council (a [coup d'état](19092)). After an election in June 2014, [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](428499) became President of Egypt. Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, rejected the change of regime as a military coup, and not democratic.
### Religion
Today, the people of Egypt are mostly Sunni Muslims. There are many Christians in Egypt today. Many of these belong to the [Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria](62160).
### Languages
The official language in Egypt is [Arabic](8522). The majority speak Egyptian Arabic but many speak other dialects. Some Egyptians still speak [Coptic](414246) and [English](2160). They also speak French and German in Egypt. These are taught in Egypt as additional languages.
## Famous people
Many famous people are from Egypt. Some of these include [Omar Sharif](69035), who was an international actor, [Boutros Boutros-Ghali](95526), who was the first person from [Africa](1942) to lead the [United Nations](4549), and four [Nobel Prize](6494) winners: [Anwar Sadat](276027), who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978, [Naguib Mahfouz](94243), who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988, [Ahmed Zewail](505629), who won the [Nobel Prize in Chemistry](575567) in 1999, and [Mohamed ElBaradei](36096), who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. [Mohamed Salah](606502) is a famous footballer who plays for Liverpool in England. A famous Egyptian singer is called Amr Diab.
## Governorates
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are divided into regions. The regions have towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital. Sometimes capital has the same name as the governorate.
|Governorate|Capital|Location||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|{| class="wikitable"||||||
|[Alexandria](635337)|[Alexandria](11074)|Northern||||
|[Aswan](751269)|[Aswan](75961)|Upper||||
|[Asyut](751273)|[Asyut](170829)|Upper||||
|[Beheira](751275)|[Damanhur](1241682)|Lower||||
|[Beni Suef](751277)|Beni Suef|Upper||||
|[Cairo](751281)|[Cairo](10985)|Middle||||
|[Dakahlia](751282)|Mansura|Lower||||
|[Damietta](635333)|[Damietta](636414)|Lower||||
|[Faiyum](751284)|[Faiyum](637405)|Upper||||
|[Gharbia](751285)|Tanta|Lower||||
|[Giza](751287)|[Giza](64021)|Upper||||
|[Ismailia](751296)|Ismailia|Canal||||
|Kafr el-Sheikh|Kafr el-Sheikh|Lower||||
|[Luxor](751299)|[Luxor](405090)|Upper|}|{| class="wikitable"||
|Matruh|Mersa Matruh|Western||||
|[Minya](751303)|Minya|Upper||||
|[Monufia](751392)|Shibin el-Kom|Lower||||
|[New Valley](751395)|Kharga|Western||||
|[North Sinai](751397)|Arish|Sinai||||
|[Port Said](141434)|[Port Said](90483)|Canal||||
|Qalyubia|Banha|Lower||||
|[Qena](751403)|Qena|Upper||||
|[Red Sea](751512)|[Hurghada](1177782)|Eastern||||
|[Sharqia](751511)|[Zagazig](652070)|Upper||||
|[Sohag](751514)|Sohag|Upper||||
|[South Sinai](751516)|el-Tor|Sinai||||
|[Suez](751517)|[Suez](281538)|Canal|}|style="padding-top:8px;"||
## Culture
Egypt is a country with an immense cultural mix. Life in the countryside differs from life in large cities. There are differences between the families which are Muslim, and the smaller number which are [Coptic Christians](62160). There are noticeable differences in the standards of education.
## Tourism
Tourism is one of the most important national incomes in Egypt. In 2008, about 12 million tourists visited Egypt providing nearly $12 billion of national income to Egypt. Tourism affects the economy of the country as a whole.
[Giza Necropolis](195255) is one of Egypt's iconic sites. It is a popular destination for tourists to visit. It includes the [Great Pyramid of Giza](127412), one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
## Transport
There are methods of transport in Egypt. The [Suez Canal](4705) carries ships of many countries.
Cairo Metro is one of the most important projects in Egypt. It consists of 3 lines. Metro is the most preferable transport in Egypt due to persistent major traffic jams in the streets of Cairo. Metro line 4 is being developed to reach the New Cairo District.
Egypt established [EgyptAir](574796) in 1932. The airline is based in Cairo International Airport and is owned by the Egyptian government
## Egyptian Armed Forces
The Egyptian Armed Forces are the defense forces of the Republic of Egypt. They consist of the Egyptian Air Force, Egyptian Navy, [Egyptian Army](635990), and the Egyptian Air Defense Forces. It is ranked 8th in the world. It is the strongest military force in the [Arab world](124794) and [Africa](1942).
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Arab Republic of Egypt
- **name**:
- **common name**: Egypt
- **image flag**: Flag of Egypt.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg
- **image map**: EGY orthographic.svg
- **map caption**: Location of the Egyptian Republic
- **national anthem**: "Bilady, Bilady, Bilady"
()
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
- **official languages**: Arabic language, Arabic
- **national languages**: Egyptian Arabic
- **religion**: Islam 90% (mostly Sunni)
Christianity 10% (Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Coptic)
- **demonym**: Egyptian
Masri
- **capital**: Cairo
- **largest city**: capital
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Semi-presidential system, semi-presidential
republic
- **leader title1**: President of Egypt, President
- **leader name1**: Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Egypt, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Moustafa Madbouly
- **leader title3**: Speaker of the House of Representatives (Egypt), House Speaker
- **leader name3**: Ali Abdel Aal
- **legislature**: Parliament
- **upper house**: National senate
- **lower house**: House of the Representatives
- **established event1**: Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, Upper
and Lower Egypt
- **established date1**: Circa, c. 3150 BC
- **established event2**: Muhammad Ali dynasty inaugurated
- **established date2**: 9 July 1805
- **established event3**: Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence, Independence from
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom
- **established date3**: 28 February 1922
- **established event4**: Egyptian revolution of 1952, Revolution Day
- **established date4**: 23 July 1952
- **established event5**: Republic declared
- **established date5**: 18 June 1953
- **established event6**: Constitution of Egypt, Current constitution
- **established date6**: 18 January 2014
- **area rank**: 29th
- **area km2**: 1,010,408
- **area sq mi**: 387,048
- **percent water**: 0.632
- **population estimate**: 100,075,480
- **population estimate year**: 2024
- **population estimate rank**: 13th
- **population census**: 114,484,252
- **population census year**: Censuses of Egypt#2024, 2024
- **population census rank**: 14th
- **population density km2**: 100
- **population density rank**: 83rd
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp**: $1.391 trillion
- **gdp ppp rank**: 19th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $14,023
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 94th
- **gdp nominal**: $1.7 trillion
- **gdp nominal rank**: 27th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $16,037.73
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 126th
- **gini year**: 2015
- **gini change**: decrease
- **gini**: 31.8
- **gini rank**: 51st
- **hdi year**: 2024
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi**: 0.728
- **hdi rank**: 105th
- **currency**: Egyptian pound (E£)
- **currency code**: EGP
- **time zone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: +20
- **official website**: [https://www.egypttourpackages.com/ Egypt ]
- **footnote a**: Modern Standard Arabic, Literary Arabic is the sole official language. Egyptian Arabic is the spoken language. Other Languages of Egypt, dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally.
- **footnote b**: "Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation". Arthur Goldschmidt Jr.
- **footnote c**: See Daylight saving time in Egypt.
|
**Egypt**, officially the **Arab Republic of Egypt** is a country in the Middle East and the Eastern Mediterranean, located in North Africa and Western Asia.
It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Southern Levant compromising the Gaza Strip of Palestine and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west; the Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
Cairo is the capital, largest city, and leading cultural center, while Alexandria is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism. Egypt is famous for its ancient monuments, such as the Pyramids and the Sphinx
## History
Ancient Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country in the world as it used to be ruled by pharaohs. As a province of the Roman Empire, it became Christian and some Copts remained despite over a thousand years of Muslim rule. The Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt in the tenth through twelfth centuries. Mamlukes ruled it until 1798 when Napoleon defeated them. Muhammad Ali Pasha soon took over and started a dynasty of Khedives under the Ottoman Empire. The Empire fell apart after World War I. Egypt became an independent country in 1922 and the khedive became a king. Egypt is a member of the United Nations and the Arab League. It became a republic after the Army's revolution of 1952.
## Geography
Egypt is a large country, but a large portion of it is desert. Most people (95% of Egypt's total people) live in areas around the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and along the Nile River. This includes the cities of Cairo, Alexandria, Aswan, and Port Said. Not many people live in the desert. Today, Egypt has about 90 million people.
Egypt is divided into 29 areas, called Governorates of Egypt.
## Politics
Egypt is a country that has had many different rulers and many political systems. After World War II, Egypt was still ruled by a king, Farouk of Egypt (11 February 1920 – 18 March 1965). He was the last ruler of the Muhammad Ali dynasty.
Farouk was overthrown on 23 July 1952 by a military coup. The coup was led by Muhammad Naguib, and Gamal Abdel Nasser. From then on, Egypt had military rulers or rulers who had the backing of the army and many citizens.
Nasser became president, from 1956 to 1970. Later rulers were Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak.
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became president in 2014.
### Revolution of 2011
In January 2011, thousands of protesters gathered in Cairo. They wanted Hosni Mubarak to leave office. He had been the President for almost 30 years. On February 11, 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman made an announcement. He said that Mubarak agreed to leave office. In 2012, Egypt had a democratic election for the post of President. The winner was the Muslim Brotherhood candidate, Mohamed Morsi.
The events which followed are still controversial, but one aspect stands out. Morsi issued a declaration that in effect gave him unlimited powers. He had the power to legislate (make laws) without legal overview by the courts. This caused widespread protests. On 3 July 2013, he was unseated by a military coup council (a coup d'état). After an election in June 2014, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became President of Egypt. Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, rejected the change of regime as a military coup, and not democratic.
### Religion
Today, the people of Egypt are mostly Sunni Muslims. There are many Christians in Egypt today. Many of these belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
### Languages
The official language in Egypt is Arabic. The majority speak Egyptian Arabic but many speak other dialects. Some Egyptians still speak Coptic and English. They also speak French and German in Egypt. These are taught in Egypt as additional languages.
## Famous people
Many famous people are from Egypt. Some of these include Omar Sharif, who was an international actor, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who was the first person from Africa to lead the United Nations, and four Nobel Prize winners: Anwar Sadat, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978, Naguib Mahfouz, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988, Ahmed Zewail, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1999, and Mohamed ElBaradei, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. Mohamed Salah is a famous footballer who plays for Liverpool in England. A famous Egyptian singer is called Amr Diab.
## Governorates
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are divided into regions. The regions have towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital. Sometimes capital has the same name as the governorate.
|Governorate|Capital|Location||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|{| class="wikitable"||||||
|Alexandria|Alexandria|Northern||||
|Aswan|Aswan|Upper||||
|Asyut|Asyut|Upper||||
|Beheira|Damanhur|Lower||||
|Beni Suef|Beni Suef|Upper||||
|Cairo|Cairo|Middle||||
|Dakahlia|Mansura|Lower||||
|Damietta|Damietta|Lower||||
|Faiyum|Faiyum|Upper||||
|Gharbia|Tanta|Lower||||
|Giza|Giza|Upper||||
|Ismailia|Ismailia|Canal||||
|Kafr el-Sheikh|Kafr el-Sheikh|Lower||||
|Luxor|Luxor|Upper|}|{| class="wikitable"||
|Matruh|Mersa Matruh|Western||||
|Minya|Minya|Upper||||
|Monufia|Shibin el-Kom|Lower||||
|New Valley|Kharga|Western||||
|North Sinai|Arish|Sinai||||
|Port Said|Port Said|Canal||||
|Qalyubia|Banha|Lower||||
|Qena|Qena|Upper||||
|Red Sea|Hurghada|Eastern||||
|Sharqia|Zagazig|Upper||||
|Sohag|Sohag|Upper||||
|South Sinai|el-Tor|Sinai||||
|Suez|Suez|Canal|}|style="padding-top:8px;"||
## Culture
Egypt is a country with an immense cultural mix. Life in the countryside differs from life in large cities. There are differences between the families which are Muslim, and the smaller number which are Coptic Christians. There are noticeable differences in the standards of education.
## Tourism
Tourism is one of the most important national incomes in Egypt. In 2008, about 12 million tourists visited Egypt providing nearly $12 billion of national income to Egypt. Tourism affects the economy of the country as a whole.
Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's iconic sites. It is a popular destination for tourists to visit. It includes the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
## Transport
There are methods of transport in Egypt. The Suez Canal carries ships of many countries.
Cairo Metro is one of the most important projects in Egypt. It consists of 3 lines. Metro is the most preferable transport in Egypt due to persistent major traffic jams in the streets of Cairo. Metro line 4 is being developed to reach the New Cairo District.
Egypt established EgyptAir in 1932. The airline is based in Cairo International Airport and is owned by the Egyptian government
## Egyptian Armed Forces
The Egyptian Armed Forces are the defense forces of the Republic of Egypt. They consist of the Egyptian Air Force, Egyptian Navy, Egyptian Army, and the Egyptian Air Defense Forces. It is ranked 8th in the world. It is the strongest military force in the Arab world and Africa.
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Arab Republic of Egypt
- **name**:
- **common name**: Egypt
- **image flag**: Flag of Egypt.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg
- **image map**: EGY orthographic.svg
- **map caption**: Location of the Egyptian Republic
- **national anthem**: "Bilady, Bilady, Bilady"
()
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
- **official languages**: Arabic language, Arabic
- **national languages**: Egyptian Arabic
- **religion**: Islam 90% (mostly Sunni)
Christianity 10% (Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Coptic)
- **demonym**: Egyptian
Masri
- **capital**: Cairo
- **largest city**: capital
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Semi-presidential system, semi-presidential
republic
- **leader title1**: President of Egypt, President
- **leader name1**: Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Egypt, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Moustafa Madbouly
- **leader title3**: Speaker of the House of Representatives (Egypt), House Speaker
- **leader name3**: Ali Abdel Aal
- **legislature**: Parliament
- **upper house**: National senate
- **lower house**: House of the Representatives
- **established event1**: Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, Upper
and Lower Egypt
- **established date1**: Circa, c. 3150 BC
- **established event2**: Muhammad Ali dynasty inaugurated
- **established date2**: 9 July 1805
- **established event3**: Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence, Independence from
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom
- **established date3**: 28 February 1922
- **established event4**: Egyptian revolution of 1952, Revolution Day
- **established date4**: 23 July 1952
- **established event5**: Republic declared
- **established date5**: 18 June 1953
- **established event6**: Constitution of Egypt, Current constitution
- **established date6**: 18 January 2014
- **area rank**: 29th
- **area km2**: 1,010,408
- **area sq mi**: 387,048
- **percent water**: 0.632
- **population estimate**: 100,075,480
- **population estimate year**: 2024
- **population estimate rank**: 13th
- **population census**: 114,484,252
- **population census year**: Censuses of Egypt#2024, 2024
- **population census rank**: 14th
- **population density km2**: 100
- **population density rank**: 83rd
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp**: $1.391 trillion
- **gdp ppp rank**: 19th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $14,023
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 94th
- **gdp nominal**: $1.7 trillion
- **gdp nominal rank**: 27th
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $16,037.73
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 126th
- **gini year**: 2015
- **gini change**: decrease
- **gini**: 31.8
- **gini rank**: 51st
- **hdi year**: 2024
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi**: 0.728
- **hdi rank**: 105th
- **currency**: Egyptian pound (E£)
- **currency code**: EGP
- **time zone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: +20
- **official website**: [https://www.egypttourpackages.com/ Egypt ]
- **footnote a**: Modern Standard Arabic, Literary Arabic is the sole official language. Egyptian Arabic is the spoken language. Other Languages of Egypt, dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally.
- **footnote b**: "Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation". Arthur Goldschmidt Jr.
- **footnote c**: See Daylight saving time in Egypt.
|
high
| false
| false
|
249
|
Everything2
|
**Everything2** or **E2** is a [website](908). It lets people make pages about many different things, and some people use it as a [diary](219111).
E2 users create pages called _nodes_ and add stuff in _writeups_. Only logged-in users can create writeups. Only the person who created the writeup or someone who the website owners (called "gods") choose can edit the writeup. On the other hand, on [Wikipedia](27263), anyone can edit pages, but on Everything2 only those who can edit the writeup can edit pages.
Everything2 does not require a neutral point of view like Wikipedia does. So, it is possible to have more than one article (writeups) under the same title (node), each by different authors, and presenting different points of view.
## Other websites
- [Everything2 website](http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=124)
- [Everything2.com article about Wikipedia](http://everything2.com/?node=Wikipedia)
|
**Everything2** or **E2** is a website. It lets people make pages about many different things, and some people use it as a diary.
E2 users create pages called _nodes_ and add stuff in _writeups_. Only logged-in users can create writeups. Only the person who created the writeup or someone who the website owners (called "gods") choose can edit the writeup. On the other hand, on Wikipedia, anyone can edit pages, but on Everything2 only those who can edit the writeup can edit pages.
Everything2 does not require a neutral point of view like Wikipedia does. So, it is possible to have more than one article (writeups) under the same title (node), each by different authors, and presenting different points of view.
## Other websites
- Everything2 website
- Everything2.com article about Wikipedia
|
low
| false
| false
|
253
|
Editor
|
An **Editor** is a person who makes _edits_ (changes) to [document](76829)s.
More specifically the word _editor_ can mean:
- a person who changes texts; see [copy editing](301127).
- a [newspaper](7665) or [magazine](18448) editor is a person who prepares articles for printing and sometimes chooses which articles to put in the newspaper. The main editor of a newspaper or magazine is called the "editor-in chief".
- a Wikipedia user who makes changes (also called "edits") to pages (articles, templates, categories, etc)
- [text editor](52239), an application program for editing an electronic text or media document
- one who, or that which, [edits photos](272582)
- film editor, a person who edits [movies](3486)
- a human or machine for movie film or [video editing](593123)
|
An **Editor** is a person who makes _edits_ (changes) to documents.
More specifically the word _editor_ can mean:
- a person who changes texts; see copy editing.
- a newspaper or magazine editor is a person who prepares articles for printing and sometimes chooses which articles to put in the newspaper. The main editor of a newspaper or magazine is called the "editor-in chief".
- a Wikipedia user who makes changes (also called "edits") to pages (articles, templates, categories, etc)
- text editor, an application program for editing an electronic text or media document
- one who, or that which, edits photos
- film editor, a person who edits movies
- a human or machine for movie film or video editing
|
medium
| false
| false
|
255
|
Ecological yield
|
**Ecological yield** is the harvestable [growth](71075) of an [ecosystem](30260). It is most commonly measured in [forestry](10907) - in fact sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest.
However, the concept is also applicable to [water](939), and [soil](7117), and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed - the so-called [renewable resource](55646)s. The [carrying capacity](274198) of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt).
|
**Ecological yield** is the harvestable growth of an ecosystem. It is most commonly measured in forestry - in fact sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest.
However, the concept is also applicable to water, and soil, and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed - the so-called renewable resources. The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt).
|
medium
| false
| false
|
256
|
Experience economy
|
The **experience economy** is the intangible [service economy](813) that customers experience directly. In [moral purchasing](5430), Natural Capitalism and other theories of how [consumers](703277) make choices, they are actually choosing experiences or comprehensive outcomes of their choices. For instance to buy local is to choose a whole experience of local suppliers, such as in a farmers market or [Slow Food](983401), that is quite different than the experience associated with factory food or [fast food](23692).
|
The **experience economy** is the intangible service economy that customers experience directly. In moral purchasing, Natural Capitalism and other theories of how consumers make choices, they are actually choosing experiences or comprehensive outcomes of their choices. For instance to buy local is to choose a whole experience of local suppliers, such as in a farmers market or Slow Food, that is quite different than the experience associated with factory food or fast food.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
257
|
Execution
|
**Execution** is where [state](798) authorities kill someone for having committed an extremely serious [crime](151), usually [treason](40240) or especially terrible [murder](3706)s. In most [countries](121) where the [death penalty](6659) is still provided for by [law](426), using it is an option available to the sentencing [judge](7952): even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a [prison](1934) for the rest of their life. A person whose job is to execute others is an **executioner**.
## Beheading
Beheading means cutting the person's head off. It is one of the oldest execution methods and mentioned in the [Bible](2866). Beheading used to be the standard method of execution in [Scandinavia](9141) and [Germany](219828). Commoners were usually beheaded with an [axe](21973) and noblemen with a [sword](9713). A special device, like the [guillotine](21256), may be used, as in [France](291). [Nazi Germany](15678) used the guillotine to execute criminal convicts, such as murderers.
Many countries formerly used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, many noblemen and even some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and might be allowed a last speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it might take several strokes before the head was cut off.
## Other ways of execution
Many countries do not allow executions as punishment any more, because it is too violent or immoral. However, many [states](342544) of the [United States](219587) and some other countries use it. In the United States, less violent ways of execution are used than in the past. Here are some ways of executing people:
- **[Hanging](106873)**: Using a rope to either break the convict's neck or to choke (or strangle) them. Widely used around the world until the 20th century. Still today in use in some countries, such as [Iraq](26175), [Singapore](5909) and [Japan](403).
- **[Firing Squad](266054)**: Several people shoot and kill a person. Armies around the world have long used this method, since guns and bullets are readily available. Firing squad was the lawful means of execution in [Finland](292) until 1944, when death penalty was abolished (stopped by the law). It was also used in the state of [Utah](10485) in the 20th century. In most cases, not all the shooters have real bullets. After the execution, it is not possible to determine which of the people firing killed the person just executed.
- **[Gas chamber](107762)**: killing a person by filling the air in a room with [poison gas](233697) until the person cannot breathe and dies. This method was used for executions in some U.S. states, and for [mass murder](436833) by the [Schutzstaffel](45977) during [the Holocaust](4469).
- **[Lethal injection](127074)**: Killing a person by placing poisons into their bloodstream. This is the choice of execution in most U.S. states that allow executions.
- **[Electrocution](107929)**: Killing a person by placing them in an [electric chair](107920) and giving them a very high electric shock.
## Old-fashioned methods
- **[Crucifixion](50588)**: a person (or their corpse) is fixed to a timber by [nails](7161) or by [impalement](609068). The [Romans](24298) used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels and runaway slaves because the Romans considered it the most unpleasant death. Death by this method may take days. Besides [ancient Greece](13444), [ancient Rome](24298), and the Persian empires, this method was also used in feudal Japan.
- **Drawing and Quartering**: A violent form of execution common in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. It involved taking a person's organs out while they were still alive.
- **Breaking on the wheel**: the executioner breaks all the bones of a person's [limbs](77820) with a heavy object. The executioner wraps the person's limbs around a wheel from a [carriage](70821), and lifts the wheel to the top of a tall pole. Slowly, the person dies.
- **Crushing**, also called **pressing**: used in the common law legal systems. A [defendant](161694) who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier [stone](14449)s placed upon their [chest](27568) until a plea was entered or the person suffocated.
- **Garroting**, a method of strangulation used in [Spain](219832) for hundreds of years.
|
**Execution** is where state authorities kill someone for having committed an extremely serious crime, usually treason or especially terrible murders. In most countries where the death penalty is still provided for by law, using it is an option available to the sentencing judge: even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a prison for the rest of their life. A person whose job is to execute others is an **executioner**.
## Beheading
Beheading means cutting the person's head off. It is one of the oldest execution methods and mentioned in the Bible. Beheading used to be the standard method of execution in Scandinavia and Germany. Commoners were usually beheaded with an axe and noblemen with a sword. A special device, like the guillotine, may be used, as in France. Nazi Germany used the guillotine to execute criminal convicts, such as murderers.
Many countries formerly used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, many noblemen and even some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and might be allowed a last speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it might take several strokes before the head was cut off.
## Other ways of execution
Many countries do not allow executions as punishment any more, because it is too violent or immoral. However, many states of the United States and some other countries use it. In the United States, less violent ways of execution are used than in the past. Here are some ways of executing people:
- **Hanging**: Using a rope to either break the convict's neck or to choke (or strangle) them. Widely used around the world until the 20th century. Still today in use in some countries, such as Iraq, Singapore and Japan.
- **Firing Squad**: Several people shoot and kill a person. Armies around the world have long used this method, since guns and bullets are readily available. Firing squad was the lawful means of execution in Finland until 1944, when death penalty was abolished (stopped by the law). It was also used in the state of Utah in the 20th century. In most cases, not all the shooters have real bullets. After the execution, it is not possible to determine which of the people firing killed the person just executed.
- **Gas chamber**: killing a person by filling the air in a room with poison gas until the person cannot breathe and dies. This method was used for executions in some U.S. states, and for mass murder by the Schutzstaffel during the Holocaust.
- **Lethal injection**: Killing a person by placing poisons into their bloodstream. This is the choice of execution in most U.S. states that allow executions.
- **Electrocution**: Killing a person by placing them in an electric chair and giving them a very high electric shock.
## Old-fashioned methods
- **Crucifixion**: a person (or their corpse) is fixed to a timber by nails or by impalement. The Romans used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels and runaway slaves because the Romans considered it the most unpleasant death. Death by this method may take days. Besides ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and the Persian empires, this method was also used in feudal Japan.
- **Drawing and Quartering**: A violent form of execution common in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. It involved taking a person's organs out while they were still alive.
- **Breaking on the wheel**: the executioner breaks all the bones of a person's limbs with a heavy object. The executioner wraps the person's limbs around a wheel from a carriage, and lifts the wheel to the top of a tall pole. Slowly, the person dies.
- **Crushing**, also called **pressing**: used in the common law legal systems. A defendant who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier stones placed upon their chest until a plea was entered or the person suffocated.
- **Garroting**, a method of strangulation used in Spain for hundreds of years.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
258
|
Flesch Reading Ease
|
The **Flesch Reading Ease** (FRES) score says how easy something is to read. J. Peter Kincaid and others made this formula for the U.S. Navy in 1975.
## How it works
The FRES test works by counting the number of words, syllables, and sentences in the text. It then calculates the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per word. The idea is that shorter words and shorter sentences are easier to read. The higher the [score](36352), the easier the text is to understand. The formula is:
Some points of reference for the score are:
|Score|School level|Notes|
| --- | --- | --- |
|100.00-90.00|5th grade|Very easy to read. Easily understood by an average 11-year-old student.|
|90.0–80.0|6th grade|Easy to read. Conversational English for consumers.|
|80.0–70.0|7th grade|Fairly easy to read.|
|70.0–60.0|8th & 9th grade|Plain English. Easily understood by 13- to 15-year-old students.|
|60.0–50.0|10th to 12th grade|Fairly hard to read.|
|50.0–30.0|College|Hard to read.|
|30.0–0.0|College graduate|Very hard to read. Best understood by university graduates.|
The highest score possible is 121.22. It is gained if every sentence only has a one-syllable word.
"The cat sat on the mat" scores 116. There is no lower limit to this score. Some very complicated
sentences can have negative scores.
The Flesch score is usually lower for technical documentation because the topic itself is complicated.
Someone who uses the test regularly will develop a sense of a reasonable score for this type of writing.
They can then aim to align with this score.
The Flesch score for this subsection is 74.
## Tools
Tools to calculate the Flesch Reading Ease include:
- [Microsoft Word](5549)'s [grammar](299) check
- Abiword (open source)
- KWord (open source)
- [koRpus](https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/koRpus/index.html)
## Other websites
- [CheckText.org](http://www.checktext.org) ; A website that calculates Flesch Reading Ease
- Rudolf Flesch, the developer of the test, provides some background information on [how to write plain English](http://www.mang.canterbury.ac.nz/writing_guide/writing/flesch.shtml) .
- [readabilityofwikipedia.com](http://readabilityofwikipedia.com/) : a website that calculates the score for Wikipedia
|
The **Flesch Reading Ease** (FRES) score says how easy something is to read. J. Peter Kincaid and others made this formula for the U.S. Navy in 1975.
## How it works
The FRES test works by counting the number of words, syllables, and sentences in the text. It then calculates the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per word. The idea is that shorter words and shorter sentences are easier to read. The higher the score, the easier the text is to understand. The formula is:
Some points of reference for the score are:
|Score|School level|Notes|
| --- | --- | --- |
|100.00-90.00|5th grade|Very easy to read. Easily understood by an average 11-year-old student.|
|90.0–80.0|6th grade|Easy to read. Conversational English for consumers.|
|80.0–70.0|7th grade|Fairly easy to read.|
|70.0–60.0|8th & 9th grade|Plain English. Easily understood by 13- to 15-year-old students.|
|60.0–50.0|10th to 12th grade|Fairly hard to read.|
|50.0–30.0|College|Hard to read.|
|30.0–0.0|College graduate|Very hard to read. Best understood by university graduates.|
The highest score possible is 121.22. It is gained if every sentence only has a one-syllable word.
"The cat sat on the mat" scores 116. There is no lower limit to this score. Some very complicated
sentences can have negative scores.
The Flesch score is usually lower for technical documentation because the topic itself is complicated.
Someone who uses the test regularly will develop a sense of a reasonable score for this type of writing.
They can then aim to align with this score.
The Flesch score for this subsection is 74.
## Tools
Tools to calculate the Flesch Reading Ease include:
- Microsoft Word's grammar check
- Abiword (open source)
- KWord (open source)
- koRpus
## Other websites
- CheckText.org ; A website that calculates Flesch Reading Ease
- Rudolf Flesch, the developer of the test, provides some background information on how to write plain English .
- readabilityofwikipedia.com : a website that calculates the score for Wikipedia
|
medium
| false
| false
|
262
|
February
|
**February** (Feb.) is the second [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Julian](12158) and [Gregorian calendars](12159), coming between [January](400) and [March](468). It has 28 days in [common year](3974)s, and 29 days in [leap year](434)s. This was to make the calendar match to the rest of the world. In [1930](9853) and [1931](9219), February had 30 days in the [Soviet Union](3600) because the government changed all the months to be 30 days long. The name comes either from the Roman god Februus or else from "februa", the festivals of purification celebrated in Rome every fifteenth of this month.
February begins on the same day of the week as [March](468) and [November](530) in [common year](3974)s, and [August](2) in [leap year](434)s. February always ends on the same day of the week as [October](569), and additionally, [January](400) in [common year](3974)s.
## The Month
February is one of the last two months to be added to the calendar at the beginning of the year (the other is January). This is because in the original [Roman calendar](606601), the two months of [winter](6643), when not much would happen in agriculture, did not have names.
February is the second month of the year, coming between [January](400) and [March](468), and is also the shortest month, with 28 days in a [common year](3974), and 29 days in a [leap year](434).
February begins on the same day of the week as [March](468) and [November](530) in common years and on the same day of the week as [August](2) in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and [October](569) every year, as each other's last days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. In a [leap year](434), February is the only month to both begin and end on the same day of the week.
Every year, February starts on the same day of the week as [June](401) of the previous year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as [May](469) of the previous year, and in leap years, [August](2) and [November](530) of the previous year.
In common years immediately before other common years, February starts on the same day of the week as [August](2) of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, [May](469) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as [July](402) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [April](1) and [December](185) of the following year.
February is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, will have four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday, this was observed in 2021 and can be traced back 11 years to 2010, 11 years back to 1999, 6 years back to 1993, 11 years back to 1982, 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965, and will be observed again in 2027 In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 2015 (11 years earlier than 2026), 2009 (6 years earlier than 2015), 1998 (11 years earlier than 2009) and 1987 (11 years earlier than 1998). This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.
From circa 700 BC, when Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, added it to the calendar, February had 23 days and 24 days on some of every second year, until 46 BC when Julius Caesar assigned it 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise. [Leap year](434) Day, [February 29](10114), is added in every year that can be divided equally by four, such as [2012](12277) and [2016](188994), but this does not apply when the year ending in "00" at the turn of the [century](3261) does not divide equally into 400. This means that [1600](8501) and [2000](4022) were [leap year](434)s in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), but [1700](16513), [1800](20342), and [1900](10606) were rather common years. This is where the [Julian calendar](12158) calculated dates differently, as it always repeated [February 29](10114) every four years.
February is a [winter](6643) month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) and a [summer](3640) month in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). In each [hemisphere](31981), it is the [season](6276)al equivalent of [August](2) in the other. In [weather](3399) lore, [Groundhog Day](181681), in the [United States](219587), is set to decide what the weather will be like for the rest of the [winter](6643).
February's flower is the [violet](26986) and its birthstone is the [amethyst](64458). The meaning of the amethyst is sincerity. The [zodiac](66540) signs for February are [Aquarius](560989) ([January 21](9735) to [February 19](9844)), and [Pisces](259363) ([February 20](8167) to [March 20](8759)).
### Fixed Events
- [February 1](9838) – Freedom Day ([United States](219587))
- [February 1](9838) – [Imbolc](49637) ([Paganism](21132))
- [February 2](7789) – [Groundhog Day](181681) ([United States](219587))
- [February 2](7789) – [Candlemas](394971) (Western [Christianity](219595))
- [February 2](7789) – Inventor's Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [February 2](7789) – World [Wetland](55073)s Day
- [February 2](7789) – [Constitution](173) Day ([Philippines](5103))
- [February 3](6610) – Heroes' Day ([Mozambique](12338))
- [February 3](6610) – Veterans' Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [February 4](8921) – Independence Day ([Sri Lanka](15886))
- [February 4](8921) – Day of the Armed Struggle ([Angola](53))
- [February 4](8921) – World [Cancer](5001) Day
- [February 5](9839) – [Constitution](173) Day ([Mexico](1935))
- [February 5](9839) – Runeberg's [Birthday](22419) ([Finland](292))
- [February 5](9839) – Unity Day ([Burundi](9576))
- [February 6](8731) – Waitangi Day ([New Zealand](5072))
- [February 6](8731) – [Sámi](50109) National Day ([Norway](3460), [Sweden](2136), [Finland](292), parts of [Russia](2964))
- [February 6](8731) – [Ronald Reagan](4546) Day ([California](3009))
- [February 7](7866) – Independence Day ([Grenada](12210))
- [February 10](9842) – Feast of St. Paul's Shipwreck ([Malta](4100))
- [February 10](9842) – Fenkil Day ([Eritrea](15032))
- [February 11](7557) – Feast day of [Our Lady of Lourdes](449611) ([Catholic Church](10754))
- [February 11](7557) – National Foundation Day ([Japan](403))
- [February 12](5415) – [Darwin](5121) Day
- [February 12](5415) – [Abraham Lincoln](5414)'s birthday ([United States](219587))
- [February 12](5415) – Union Day (Burma)
- [February 12](5415) – Youth Day ([Venezuela](6349))
- [February 14](8064) – [Valentine's Day](19763)
- [February 14](8064) – Statehood Day in [Arizona](9288) and [Oregon](10915)
- [February 15](9841) – Day of the Flag of [Canada](219589)
- [February 16](9843) – Independence Day ([Lithuania](4099))
- [February 17](9793) – Celebrated as Independence Day in [Kosovo](40777)
- [February 18](7843) – Independence Day (the Gambia)
- [February 18](7843) – International [Asperger's](192250) Day
- [February 21](7727) – International Mother [Language](419) Day
- [February 21](7727) – Language Movement Day ([Bangladesh](15790))
- [February 21](7727) – Biikebrennen, celebrated in Northern [Schleswig-Holstein](10133) ([Germany](219828)) and southern [Denmark](208)
- [February 22](5411) – [George Washington](5410)'s birthday ([United States](219587))
- [February 22](5411) – Independence Day ([Saint Lucia](20412))
- [February 23](9845) – Republic Day ([Guyana](11622))
- [February 23](9845) – National Day ([Brunei](18029))
- [February 23](9845) – Defender of the Fatherland Day ([Russia](2964))
- [February 24](8736) – Independence Day ([Estonia](4096))
- [February 24](8736) – Flag Day ([Mexico](1935))
- [February 25](9846) – National Day ([Kuwait](9181))
- [February 25](9846) – People Power Day ([Philippines](5103))
- [February 25](9846) – Soviet Occupation Day ([Georgia](14986))
- [February 26](9847) – Liberation Day ([Kuwait](9181))
- [February 27](9848) – National Day ([Dominican Republic](15648))
- [February 28](9849) – Kalevala Day ([Finland](292))
- [February 28](9849) – National [Science](700) Day ([India](391))
- [February 28](9849) – Peace Memorial Day ([Taiwan](833))
- [February 29](10114) – Leap day
### Moveable and month-long Events
- [Chinese New Year](84801); falls on a [new moon](3540) between [January 21](9735) and [February 21](7727).
- [Lent](222669)-related observances in Western [Christianity](219595):
- Shrove Monday; can fall between [February 2](7789) and [March 8](8648)
- [Shrove Tuesday](168541) ([Pancake](39585) Day); can fall between [February 3](6610) and [March 9](9862)
- [Ash Wednesday](43918), start of [Lent](222669); can fall between [February 4](8921) and [March 10](9863)
- [Carnival](22479); most famous ones take place in [Rio de Janeiro](7805) and [Venice](5198)
- Black History Month ([Canada](219589) and [United States](219587))
- Presidents' Day ([United States](219587)) – Third [Monday](4010) in February, celebrating the [birthday](22419)s of [Abraham Lincoln](5414) and [George Washington](5410).
- [Super Bowl](18181) ([American football](8793)), usually on the first [Sunday](3837) in February
- Six Nations ([rugby union](70537)), tournament running from early February to mid-[March](468) between [England](3047), [France](291), [Ireland](361), [Italy](363), [Scotland](3049) and [Wales](3048).
- Winter Olympics are often held in February, last in [2010](14361), and next in [2014](85663).
## Selection of historical events
- [February 1](9838), [1884](10526) – The first edition of the [Oxford English Dictionary](185034) is published.
- [February 1](9838), [1953](7455) – In the night from [January 31](5167), parts of the [Netherlands](3463), [Belgium](103) and the [United Kingdom](856) are severely [flood](4914)ed.
- [February 1](9838), [2003](3954) – [Space Shuttle Columbia](92381) breaks up on re-entry into the [Earth](219)'s [atmosphere](350724), killing all seven [astronaut](4783)s on board.
- [February 2](7789), [1913](7829) – [Grand Central Terminal](208351) in [New York City](566) is opened for the first time.
- [February 3](6610), [1931](9219) – A magnitude 7.8 [earthquake](2081) hits the cities of Napier and Hastings, [New Zealand](5072).
- [February 3](6610), [1959](9558) – [Buddy Holly](20519), [Ritchie Valens](283975) and [The Big Bopper](364079) die in a plane crash in [Iowa](13314) on the "Day The Music Died".
- [February 4](8921), [1948](7177) – Ceylon, present-day [Sri Lanka](15886), becomes independent.
- [February 4](8921), [2004](3796) – [Facebook](123387) is founded.
- [February 5](9839), [1818](17301) – Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte becomes [King](410) of [Sweden](2136).
- [February 5](9839), [1909](10294) – [Leo Baekeland](350646) announces the creation of [Bakelite](350640).
- [February 6](8731), [1788](5153) – [Massachusetts](9290) becomes a [US](720016) [State](798).
- [February 6](8731), [1840](19649) – The [Treaty of Waitangi](473619) is signed in [New Zealand](5072), officially making it a British colony.
- [February 6](8731), [1952](6752) – Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom becomes Queen.
- [February 7](7866), [1979](7474) – [Grenada](12210) becomes independent.
- [February 8](9840), [1542](5165) – [Mary, Queen of Scots](89821) is executed.
- [February 10](9842), [1763](20152) – In the [Treaty of Paris](350656), [France](291) has to give [Quebec](649) to [Great Britain](3051).
- [February 10](9842), [1863](11698) – The [fire extinguisher](170636) is [patent](19139)ed.
- [February 11](7557), [1858](4599) – [Bernadette Soubirous](269789)'s first [vision](923712) of the [Blessed Virgin Mary](449611) occurs in [Lourdes](92501), France
- [February 11](7557), [1979](7474) – Islamic Revolution.
- [February 11](7557), [1990](8905) – In [South Africa](3528), [Nelson Mandela](8575) is released from prison.
- [February 11](7557), [2011](31950) – [Hosni Mubarak](20682) resigns as [President](4044) of [Egypt](248), after widespread protests.
- [February 11](7557), [2013](34906) – [Pope Benedict XVI](9330) announces his resignation, effective at the end of the month.
- [February 12](5415), [1809](8338) – [Charles Darwin](5121) and [Abraham Lincoln](5414) are born on the same day.
- [February 12](5415), [1818](17301) – [Bernardo O'Higgins](387100) signs the Independence of [Chile](4008) near [Concepcion](235157).
- [February 13](5166), [1668](24582) – [Spain](219832) recognizes [Portugal](3466) as an independent country.
- [February 13](5166), [1931](9219) – [New Delhi](5117) becomes the capital city of [India](391).
- [February 14](8064), [1779](16512) – [James Cook](19761) is killed by local people in the [Hawaii](332)an Islands.
- [February 15](9841), [1965](2983) – The Maple Leaf Flag becomes the [Flag of Canada](67248).
- [February 15](9841), [2013](34906) – A meteorite explodes over [Chelyabinsk](385096), western [Siberia](33186), [Russia](2964), injuring over 1,000 people.
- [February 16](9843), [1918](9268) – [Lithuania](4099) declares independence.
- [February 16](9843), [1959](9558) – [Fidel Castro](7169) becomes leader of [Cuba](178).
- [February 17](9793), [2008](183009) – [Kosovo](40777) declares independence from [Serbia](5000), which does not recognize it as an independent state.
- [February 18](7843), [1930](9853) – [Clyde Tombaugh](207357) discovers the [dwarf planet](34462) [Pluto](241636).
- [February 18](7843), [1965](2983) – [The Gambia](14726) becomes independent.
- [February 19](9844), [1861](16534) – [Serfdom](11606) ends in [Russia](2964).
- [February 20](8167), [1472](19457) – Orkney and [Shetland](41142) become part of [Scotland](3049).
- [February 20](8167), [1929](2897) – [American Samoa](7864) becomes a [US](720016) [territory](156768).
- [February 21](7727), [1613](17451) – [Mikhail I of Russia](718694) becomes [Tsar](19646), starting the Romanov Dynasty.
- [February 21](7727), [1848](10599) – [Karl Marx](4473) and [Friedrich Engels](13859) publish the Communist Manifesto.
- [February 21](7727), [1958](9203) – The [peace](648) symbol is designed.
- [February 22](5411), [1862](16384) – [Jefferson Davis](200230) officially becomes [President](4044) of the [Confederate States of America](10002).
- [February 22](5411), [1979](7474) – [Saint Lucia](20412) becomes independent.
- [February 22](5411), [2011](31950) – A strong [earthquake](2081) strikes the city of [Christchurch](64145), [New Zealand](5072), killing 181 people, and destroying the city's [cathedral](5579).
- [February 23](9845), [1941](4628) – [Plutonium](37855) is first produced and isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg.
- [February 23](9845), [1970](4941) – [Guyana](11622) becomes a [republic](4978).
- [February 24](8736), [1918](9268) – [Estonia](4096) declares independence.
- [February 24](8736), [2022](189000) – Russia invades Ukraine.
- [February 25](9846), [1921](9204) – Soviet [Russia](2964) occupies [Tbilisi](32121), [Georgia](14986).
- [February 25](9846), [1947](8355) – [Prussia](5354) no longer exists from this date.
- [February 25](9846), [1986](9266) – Through the People Power [Revolution](40652), [Corazon Aquino](389623) becomes [President](4044) of the [Philippines](5103).
- [February 26](9847), [1815](4593) – Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from [exile](48562) on the island of [Elba](19023).
- [February 26](9847), [1993](3961) – A terrorist [bomb](50504) explodes in a car park under the [World Trade Center](3454), [New York City](566).
- [February 27](9848), [1844](4655) – The [Dominican Republic](15648) becomes independent from [Haiti](15863).
- [February 27](9848), [2010](14361) – The 2010 Cauquenes earthquake strikes Central [Chile](4008), causing major destruction and killing around 500 people.
- [February 28](9849), [1922](10008) – [Egypt](248) declares independence.
- [February 28](9849), [1986](9266) – [Prime Minister](3598) of [Sweden](2136) [Olof Palme](63660) is [murder](3706)ed.
- [February 29](10114), [1960](8426) – An [earthquake](2081) strikes [Agadir](548821), [Morocco](15294), killing 3,000 people.
- [February 29](10114), [1984](9264) – [Pierre Trudeau](25577) announces his resignation as [Prime Minister of Canada](21483).
- [February 29](10114), [2004](3796) – [Jean-Bertrand Aristide](753830) resigns as [President](4044) of [Haiti](15863) following a popular rebel uprising.
## Trivia
- In February the [Sun](44408) passes through [zodiac](66540) [constellation](4913)s [Capricornus](289710) and Aquarius.
- The signs of the [zodiac](66540) within the month of February are Aquarius ([January 21](9735) to [February 19](9844)) and Pisces ([February 20](8167) to [March 20](8759)).
- February is the shortest month of the year.
- In a [leap year](434), [February 29](10114) falls on the same day of the week as [October 31](8341).
- The birth flower of February is the [violet](26986).
- The [Amethyst](64458) and the [Pearl](25111) are considered birthstones of the month of February.
- Two of the most highly rated [United States](219587) [President](4044)s were born in February - [Abraham Lincoln](5414) and [George Washington](5410). Other US Presidents born in February are [Ronald Reagan](4546) and [William Henry Harrison](14512), who was the shortest-serving President.
- [Nicolaus Copernicus](26332) and [Galileo Galilei](4052), two famous astronomers, were both born in February.
|
**February** (Feb.) is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between January and March. It has 28 days in common years, and 29 days in leap years. This was to make the calendar match to the rest of the world. In 1930 and 1931, February had 30 days in the Soviet Union because the government changed all the months to be 30 days long. The name comes either from the Roman god Februus or else from "februa", the festivals of purification celebrated in Rome every fifteenth of this month.
February begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years, and August in leap years. February always ends on the same day of the week as October, and additionally, January in common years.
## The Month
February is one of the last two months to be added to the calendar at the beginning of the year (the other is January). This is because in the original Roman calendar, the two months of winter, when not much would happen in agriculture, did not have names.
February is the second month of the year, coming between January and March, and is also the shortest month, with 28 days in a common year, and 29 days in a leap year.
February begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years and on the same day of the week as August in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and October every year, as each other's last days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. In a leap year, February is the only month to both begin and end on the same day of the week.
Every year, February starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.
In common years immediately before other common years, February starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.
February is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, will have four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday, this was observed in 2021 and can be traced back 11 years to 2010, 11 years back to 1999, 6 years back to 1993, 11 years back to 1982, 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965, and will be observed again in 2027 In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 2015 (11 years earlier than 2026), 2009 (6 years earlier than 2015), 1998 (11 years earlier than 2009) and 1987 (11 years earlier than 1998). This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.
From circa 700 BC, when Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, added it to the calendar, February had 23 days and 24 days on some of every second year, until 46 BC when Julius Caesar assigned it 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise. Leap year Day, February 29, is added in every year that can be divided equally by four, such as 2012 and 2016, but this does not apply when the year ending in "00" at the turn of the century does not divide equally into 400. This means that 1600 and 2000 were leap years in the Gregorian calendar, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 were rather common years. This is where the Julian calendar calculated dates differently, as it always repeated February 29 every four years.
February is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of August in the other. In weather lore, Groundhog Day, in the United States, is set to decide what the weather will be like for the rest of the winter.
February's flower is the violet and its birthstone is the amethyst. The meaning of the amethyst is sincerity. The zodiac signs for February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19), and Pisces (February 20 to March 20).
### Fixed Events
- February 1 – Freedom Day (United States)
- February 1 – Imbolc (Paganism)
- February 2 – Groundhog Day (United States)
- February 2 – Candlemas (Western Christianity)
- February 2 – Inventor's Day (Thailand)
- February 2 – World Wetlands Day
- February 2 – Constitution Day (Philippines)
- February 3 – Heroes' Day (Mozambique)
- February 3 – Veterans' Day (Thailand)
- February 4 – Independence Day (Sri Lanka)
- February 4 – Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola)
- February 4 – World Cancer Day
- February 5 – Constitution Day (Mexico)
- February 5 – Runeberg's Birthday (Finland)
- February 5 – Unity Day (Burundi)
- February 6 – Waitangi Day (New Zealand)
- February 6 – Sámi National Day (Norway, Sweden, Finland, parts of Russia)
- February 6 – Ronald Reagan Day (California)
- February 7 – Independence Day (Grenada)
- February 10 – Feast of St. Paul's Shipwreck (Malta)
- February 10 – Fenkil Day (Eritrea)
- February 11 – Feast day of Our Lady of Lourdes (Catholic Church)
- February 11 – National Foundation Day (Japan)
- February 12 – Darwin Day
- February 12 – Abraham Lincoln's birthday (United States)
- February 12 – Union Day (Burma)
- February 12 – Youth Day (Venezuela)
- February 14 – Valentine's Day
- February 14 – Statehood Day in Arizona and Oregon
- February 15 – Day of the Flag of Canada
- February 16 – Independence Day (Lithuania)
- February 17 – Celebrated as Independence Day in Kosovo
- February 18 – Independence Day (the Gambia)
- February 18 – International Asperger's Day
- February 21 – International Mother Language Day
- February 21 – Language Movement Day (Bangladesh)
- February 21 – Biikebrennen, celebrated in Northern Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) and southern Denmark
- February 22 – George Washington's birthday (United States)
- February 22 – Independence Day (Saint Lucia)
- February 23 – Republic Day (Guyana)
- February 23 – National Day (Brunei)
- February 23 – Defender of the Fatherland Day (Russia)
- February 24 – Independence Day (Estonia)
- February 24 – Flag Day (Mexico)
- February 25 – National Day (Kuwait)
- February 25 – People Power Day (Philippines)
- February 25 – Soviet Occupation Day (Georgia)
- February 26 – Liberation Day (Kuwait)
- February 27 – National Day (Dominican Republic)
- February 28 – Kalevala Day (Finland)
- February 28 – National Science Day (India)
- February 28 – Peace Memorial Day (Taiwan)
- February 29 – Leap day
### Moveable and month-long Events
- Chinese New Year; falls on a new moon between January 21 and February 21.
- Lent-related observances in Western Christianity:
- Shrove Monday; can fall between February 2 and March 8
- Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day); can fall between February 3 and March 9
- Ash Wednesday, start of Lent; can fall between February 4 and March 10
- Carnival; most famous ones take place in Rio de Janeiro and Venice
- Black History Month (Canada and United States)
- Presidents' Day (United States) – Third Monday in February, celebrating the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln and George Washington.
- Super Bowl (American football), usually on the first Sunday in February
- Six Nations (rugby union), tournament running from early February to mid-March between England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales.
- Winter Olympics are often held in February, last in 2010, and next in 2014.
## Selection of historical events
- February 1, 1884 – The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary is published.
- February 1, 1953 – In the night from January 31, parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom are severely flooded.
- February 1, 2003 – Space Shuttle Columbia breaks up on re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts on board.
- February 2, 1913 – Grand Central Terminal in New York City is opened for the first time.
- February 3, 1931 – A magnitude 7.8 earthquake hits the cities of Napier and Hastings, New Zealand.
- February 3, 1959 – Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper die in a plane crash in Iowa on the "Day The Music Died".
- February 4, 1948 – Ceylon, present-day Sri Lanka, becomes independent.
- February 4, 2004 – Facebook is founded.
- February 5, 1818 – Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte becomes King of Sweden.
- February 5, 1909 – Leo Baekeland announces the creation of Bakelite.
- February 6, 1788 – Massachusetts becomes a US State.
- February 6, 1840 – The Treaty of Waitangi is signed in New Zealand, officially making it a British colony.
- February 6, 1952 – Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom becomes Queen.
- February 7, 1979 – Grenada becomes independent.
- February 8, 1542 – Mary, Queen of Scots is executed.
- February 10, 1763 – In the Treaty of Paris, France has to give Quebec to Great Britain.
- February 10, 1863 – The fire extinguisher is patented.
- February 11, 1858 – Bernadette Soubirous's first vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary occurs in Lourdes, France
- February 11, 1979 – Islamic Revolution.
- February 11, 1990 – In South Africa, Nelson Mandela is released from prison.
- February 11, 2011 – Hosni Mubarak resigns as President of Egypt, after widespread protests.
- February 11, 2013 – Pope Benedict XVI announces his resignation, effective at the end of the month.
- February 12, 1809 – Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln are born on the same day.
- February 12, 1818 – Bernardo O'Higgins signs the Independence of Chile near Concepcion.
- February 13, 1668 – Spain recognizes Portugal as an independent country.
- February 13, 1931 – New Delhi becomes the capital city of India.
- February 14, 1779 – James Cook is killed by local people in the Hawaiian Islands.
- February 15, 1965 – The Maple Leaf Flag becomes the Flag of Canada.
- February 15, 2013 – A meteorite explodes over Chelyabinsk, western Siberia, Russia, injuring over 1,000 people.
- February 16, 1918 – Lithuania declares independence.
- February 16, 1959 – Fidel Castro becomes leader of Cuba.
- February 17, 2008 – Kosovo declares independence from Serbia, which does not recognize it as an independent state.
- February 18, 1930 – Clyde Tombaugh discovers the dwarf planet Pluto.
- February 18, 1965 – The Gambia becomes independent.
- February 19, 1861 – Serfdom ends in Russia.
- February 20, 1472 – Orkney and Shetland become part of Scotland.
- February 20, 1929 – American Samoa becomes a US territory.
- February 21, 1613 – Mikhail I of Russia becomes Tsar, starting the Romanov Dynasty.
- February 21, 1848 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto.
- February 21, 1958 – The peace symbol is designed.
- February 22, 1862 – Jefferson Davis officially becomes President of the Confederate States of America.
- February 22, 1979 – Saint Lucia becomes independent.
- February 22, 2011 – A strong earthquake strikes the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, killing 181 people, and destroying the city's cathedral.
- February 23, 1941 – Plutonium is first produced and isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg.
- February 23, 1970 – Guyana becomes a republic.
- February 24, 1918 – Estonia declares independence.
- February 24, 2022 – Russia invades Ukraine.
- February 25, 1921 – Soviet Russia occupies Tbilisi, Georgia.
- February 25, 1947 – Prussia no longer exists from this date.
- February 25, 1986 – Through the People Power Revolution, Corazon Aquino becomes President of the Philippines.
- February 26, 1815 – Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from exile on the island of Elba.
- February 26, 1993 – A terrorist bomb explodes in a car park under the World Trade Center, New York City.
- February 27, 1844 – The Dominican Republic becomes independent from Haiti.
- February 27, 2010 – The 2010 Cauquenes earthquake strikes Central Chile, causing major destruction and killing around 500 people.
- February 28, 1922 – Egypt declares independence.
- February 28, 1986 – Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme is murdered.
- February 29, 1960 – An earthquake strikes Agadir, Morocco, killing 3,000 people.
- February 29, 1984 – Pierre Trudeau announces his resignation as Prime Minister of Canada.
- February 29, 2004 – Jean-Bertrand Aristide resigns as President of Haiti following a popular rebel uprising.
## Trivia
- In February the Sun passes through zodiac constellations Capricornus and Aquarius.
- The signs of the zodiac within the month of February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19) and Pisces (February 20 to March 20).
- February is the shortest month of the year.
- In a leap year, February 29 falls on the same day of the week as October 31.
- The birth flower of February is the violet.
- The Amethyst and the Pearl are considered birthstones of the month of February.
- Two of the most highly rated United States Presidents were born in February - Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. Other US Presidents born in February are Ronald Reagan and William Henry Harrison, who was the shortest-serving President.
- Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, two famous astronomers, were both born in February.
|
high
| false
| false
|
269
|
FAQ
|
**FAQ** is an abbreviation for "Frequently Asked Question(s)". The term is used for a list of questions and answers. All of the questions are supposed to be asked often and they all are about the same thing. Since the acronym was first used in written form, there are different ways it is said; both "fak" and "F.A.Q." are commonly used.
## Other websites
- [FAQ definition](http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/F/FAQ.html), Jargon7767819960
- [Frequently Asked Questions](https://frequentlyasked.net/)
- [Frequently Asked Questions And Answer](https://faqans.com/)
|
**FAQ** is an abbreviation for "Frequently Asked Question(s)". The term is used for a list of questions and answers. All of the questions are supposed to be asked often and they all are about the same thing. Since the acronym was first used in written form, there are different ways it is said; both "fak" and "F.A.Q." are commonly used.
## Other websites
- FAQ definition, Jargon7767819960
- Frequently Asked Questions
- Frequently Asked Questions And Answer
|
medium
| false
| false
|
271
|
Flame (disambiguation)
|
A [flame](66726) is the part of a fire that can be seen. **Flame** might also mean:
- Flaming (internet) - Insult sent over the internet on purpose
- Flame polishing
- [Flame retardant](275855), a kind of material that resists heat and flame.
- [Flame Nebula](174586), a star in Orion's Belt
## Organizations
- [Calgary Flames](25794), Canadian ice hockey team
- [Atlanta Flames](112243), original name of the Calgary Flames
- Guildford Flames, English ice hockey team
- Northumbria Flames, Northumbria University's ice hockey team
- Westchester Flames F.C., American football (soccer) team
- Canterbury Flames, New Zealand netball team
- Florida Flame, American basketball team
- Black Flame, publishing company
## Wilflife
- Flame (moth), a kind of moth
- Flame Skimmer, a kind of dragonfly
- Flame maple, a kind of maple tree
- Flame Robin, a kind of robin
## Other
- Flame gun
- Flame cell
|
A flame is the part of a fire that can be seen. **Flame** might also mean:
- Flaming (internet) - Insult sent over the internet on purpose
- Flame polishing
- Flame retardant, a kind of material that resists heat and flame.
- Flame Nebula, a star in Orion's Belt
## Organizations
- Calgary Flames, Canadian ice hockey team
- Atlanta Flames, original name of the Calgary Flames
- Guildford Flames, English ice hockey team
- Northumbria Flames, Northumbria University's ice hockey team
- Westchester Flames F.C., American football (soccer) team
- Canterbury Flames, New Zealand netball team
- Florida Flame, American basketball team
- Black Flame, publishing company
## Wilflife
- Flame (moth), a kind of moth
- Flame Skimmer, a kind of dragonfly
- Flame maple, a kind of maple tree
- Flame Robin, a kind of robin
## Other
- Flame gun
- Flame cell
|
low
| false
| false
|
276
|
Financial capital
|
**Financial capital** is a form of [capital](46686). It is things that have [value](886), but do not do anything by themselves. They are only valuable because people value (want) them. For example, [money](479) is a form of financial capital. You cannot do anything with money but it still has value.
Financial capital is used to pay for things, this is because there is always more of it and people always want it. This means that financial capital has a stable value and can be traded in most places and with most people.
Some forms of financial capital, such as [stock](46683)s, [gold](3260) or [bond](225229)s are not wanted by everybody. However they can be traded with people for money or another type of financial capital. Because of this, these forms of financial capital do not have a stable price. This means that some people try to make a [profit](19820) by buying and selling these types of financial capital in a [market](4004).
Some things are treated as financial capital, even though they do have a use. For example, some people buy and sell [land](20961) but are not interested in doing anything with it. Some people think this sort of trade is bad because the land should be used and not just treated like money. Other types of capital, such as [social capital](726) and [human capital](876273) are rarely treated like financial capital. This may be because they involve people. Treating useful capital like financial capital is called comodification.
In [politics](592), a common question is how often the government should use financial capital. In particular, should the government use financial capital to make a profit? Traditionally, liberal politicians do not mind this kind of trading for profit, but socialist or [conservative](7235) politicians are against it.
|
**Financial capital** is a form of capital. It is things that have value, but do not do anything by themselves. They are only valuable because people value (want) them. For example, money is a form of financial capital. You cannot do anything with money but it still has value.
Financial capital is used to pay for things, this is because there is always more of it and people always want it. This means that financial capital has a stable value and can be traded in most places and with most people.
Some forms of financial capital, such as stocks, gold or bonds are not wanted by everybody. However they can be traded with people for money or another type of financial capital. Because of this, these forms of financial capital do not have a stable price. This means that some people try to make a profit by buying and selling these types of financial capital in a market.
Some things are treated as financial capital, even though they do have a use. For example, some people buy and sell land but are not interested in doing anything with it. Some people think this sort of trade is bad because the land should be used and not just treated like money. Other types of capital, such as social capital and human capital are rarely treated like financial capital. This may be because they involve people. Treating useful capital like financial capital is called comodification.
In politics, a common question is how often the government should use financial capital. In particular, should the government use financial capital to make a profit? Traditionally, liberal politicians do not mind this kind of trading for profit, but socialist or conservative politicians are against it.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
278
|
Fecund universes
|
**Fecund universes** is a [multiverse](487) theory of Lee Smolin. It relies on models of our universe and [statistics](789) from [astrophysics](9235) but is more correctly a theory of [cosmology](136).
In this theory, collapsing stars, or [black hole](3506)s, are always [creating](5433) new universes with slightly different laws of physics. Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a [mutation](35685) of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of single-celled organism. It would reproduce by "splitting" in some sense.
This theory relies on many models of our universe to model these "mutated" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or "spun off" by [black hole](3506)s.
No [human](502310) can ever be part of any of these "other" universes. Observations from [astrophysics](9235) can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the laws of physics can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes.
Smolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability. If there are many black holes, that is [evidence](3914) for his theory,
As this shows, [cosmology](136) has a very different standard of evidence and burden of proof than is required for models of our universe only, which humans (using [mathematics](467)) can observe and exchange [knowledge](411) on.
It is hard to separate science from [religion](653) on such questions. It may be a simple [matter](50759) of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like [biology](101) or like [mechanics](48899) - [clockwork](637289). Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the mechanistic paradigm.
Even if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all. Some compare Smolin's theory to Gaia philosophy which combines [biology](101), [geology](19223) and [ecology](243) to explain the [Earth](219), our planet, as a living thing. If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe. This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really "right".
|
**Fecund universes** is a multiverse theory of Lee Smolin. It relies on models of our universe and statistics from astrophysics but is more correctly a theory of cosmology.
In this theory, collapsing stars, or black holes, are always creating new universes with slightly different laws of physics. Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a mutation of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of single-celled organism. It would reproduce by "splitting" in some sense.
This theory relies on many models of our universe to model these "mutated" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or "spun off" by black holes.
No human can ever be part of any of these "other" universes. Observations from astrophysics can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the laws of physics can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes.
Smolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability. If there are many black holes, that is evidence for his theory,
As this shows, cosmology has a very different standard of evidence and burden of proof than is required for models of our universe only, which humans (using mathematics) can observe and exchange knowledge on.
It is hard to separate science from religion on such questions. It may be a simple matter of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like biology or like mechanics - clockwork. Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the mechanistic paradigm.
Even if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all. Some compare Smolin's theory to Gaia philosophy which combines biology, geology and ecology to explain the Earth, our planet, as a living thing. If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe. This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really "right".
|
low
| false
| false
|
280
|
Food
|
**Food** is what people, plants and [animal](62)s eat to live. Every organism needs energy to carry on with the process of living which comes from food. Food usually comes from animals and [plant](628)s. It is eaten by living things to provide [energy](4115) and [nutrition](107489). Food contains the [nutrition](107489) that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans.
It contains [protein](636), [fat](19532), [carbohydrate](119077)s, [vitamin](19379)s, [water](939) and [minerals](19431). Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "[drink](3584)s". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry and could die.
Food for humans is mostly made through [farming](19) or [gardening](3194). It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like [meat](4646), [eggs](77687), and products with [milk](3398) in them. Not eating [meat](4646) is called [vegetarianism](7398). Not eating or using any animal products is called [veganism](25021).
|colspan="3" align="center"|**Basic foods consumed by humans**|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center"|**Plant source**|align="center"|**Animal source**|
|* [Fruit](293) * [Vegetable](8364)s * [Grain](4772)s * [Seed](765)s * [Legume](86917)s (Beans, [pea](62110)s, [lentil](129078)s, etc.) * [Herb](41847)s * [Spice](3939)s|valign="top"|* [Meat](4646) * [Seafood](12378) * [Eggs](77687) * [Dairy product](19471)s||
Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the [food industry](1187845)). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and [food additive](165439)s (such as [preservative](41151)s, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, [bread](4475) is processed food.
[Food processing](90484) at home is done in the [kitchen](7430), by the [cook](146). The cook sometimes uses a [cookbook](12401). Examples of cooking utensils are [pressure cooker](31617)s, [pot](7869)s, and [frying pan](181324)s.
Food can also be prepared and served in [restaurant](12293)s or refectory (in particular for children in [school](118745)).
The utensils used may be a [plate](3521), [knife](6528), [fork](17808), [chopsticks](6221), [spoon](18482), [bowl](21815), or [spork](8451).
Many people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People [buy](2127) most of their food in [shop](19446)s or [market](4004)s. But some people still grow most or all of their own food.
People may buy food and take it home to [cook](146) it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a [street vendor](4004) or a [restaurant](12293).
Other countries have their own way of eating food. An example of an ethnic food is [Mexican food](812494).
## Production of food
Originally, people got food as [hunter-gatherer](101291)s. The [agricultural revolution](102432) changed that. Farmers grew [crop](11502)s including those invented and improved by selective breeding. These improvements, for example the invention of [maize](158), allowed feeding more people, and further improvements gave it a better taste.
Food shortage has been a big problem throughout history. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad [weather](3399) or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are [hungry](191611). If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become [sick](4874) and die from [starvation](5548). In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is [famine](46018) there.
Food and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by [microorganism](46120)s, bad metals, or chemicals.
If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick.
- If people do not eat enough protein, they get the disease called [kwashiorkor](6300).
- If they do not eat enough [vitamin B1](294885) ([thiamine](294885)), they get the disease called [beriberi](296527).
- If they do not eat enough [vitamin C](289156), they get the disease called [scurvy](2091).
- If [child](7681)ren do not eat enough [vitamin D](55090), they get the disease called [rickets](3895).
People may often have a variety of [eating disorder](139867)s that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like [Coeliac disease](169527) or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become [overweight](165509) or [obese](19800). This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or [anorexia](22248) could cause [malnutrition](30782). Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy.
## Food in religions
Many cultures or [religion](653)s have food [taboo](26394)s. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the _Kashrut_ of [Judaism](219593) and the _[Halal](21880)_ of [Islam](219592), that say that [pig](14167) meat cannot be eaten. In [Hinduism](5961), eating [beef](4716) is not allowed. Some Christians are _vegetarian_ (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, [Seventh-day Adventist Church](19955) recommends vegetarianism.
In addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to _Guān Yīn_ mothergod and those followers will not consume "beef" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow.
|
**Food** is what people, plants and animals eat to live. Every organism needs energy to carry on with the process of living which comes from food. Food usually comes from animals and plants. It is eaten by living things to provide energy and nutrition. Food contains the nutrition that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans.
It contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and minerals. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "drinks". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry and could die.
Food for humans is mostly made through farming or gardening. It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs, and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called vegetarianism. Not eating or using any animal products is called veganism.
|colspan="3" align="center"|**Basic foods consumed by humans**|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center"|**Plant source**|align="center"|**Animal source**|
|* Fruit * Vegetables * Grains * Seeds * Legumes (Beans, peas, lentils, etc.) * Herbs * Spices|valign="top"|* Meat * Seafood * Eggs * Dairy products||
Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the food industry). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and food additives (such as preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, bread is processed food.
Food processing at home is done in the kitchen, by the cook. The cook sometimes uses a cookbook. Examples of cooking utensils are pressure cookers, pots, and frying pans.
Food can also be prepared and served in restaurants or refectory (in particular for children in school).
The utensils used may be a plate, knife, fork, chopsticks, spoon, bowl, or spork.
Many people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People buy most of their food in shops or markets. But some people still grow most or all of their own food.
People may buy food and take it home to cook it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a street vendor or a restaurant.
Other countries have their own way of eating food. An example of an ethnic food is Mexican food.
## Production of food
Originally, people got food as hunter-gatherers. The agricultural revolution changed that. Farmers grew crops including those invented and improved by selective breeding. These improvements, for example the invention of maize, allowed feeding more people, and further improvements gave it a better taste.
Food shortage has been a big problem throughout history. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad weather or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are hungry. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become sick and die from starvation. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is famine there.
Food and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by microorganisms, bad metals, or chemicals.
If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick.
- If people do not eat enough protein, they get the disease called kwashiorkor.
- If they do not eat enough vitamin B1 (thiamine), they get the disease called beriberi.
- If they do not eat enough vitamin C, they get the disease called scurvy.
- If children do not eat enough vitamin D, they get the disease called rickets.
People may often have a variety of eating disorders that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like Coeliac disease or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become overweight or obese. This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or anorexia could cause malnutrition. Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy.
## Food in religions
Many cultures or religions have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the _Kashrut_ of Judaism and the _Halal_ of Islam, that say that pig meat cannot be eaten. In Hinduism, eating beef is not allowed. Some Christians are _vegetarian_ (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, Seventh-day Adventist Church recommends vegetarianism.
In addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to _Guān Yīn_ mothergod and those followers will not consume "beef" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow.
|
high
| false
| false
|
283
|
Fine
|
If someone is found [guilty](7953) of a [crime](151), their [punishment](31012) may be to pay a **fine**, a certain amount of [money](479). In many countries, fines can be ordered by police, court [judge](7952)s and some government [officer](51915)s.
When agreeing to a [contract](4060) with a business, a customer may agree to certain rules. If the customer breaks the rules, then they agree to pay a fine for doing so. For example, when somebody [hires a car](42827) and agrees to return it by Friday, they agree that if they do not return the car by Friday, they must pay a $50 fine to the business.
|
If someone is found guilty of a crime, their punishment may be to pay a **fine**, a certain amount of money. In many countries, fines can be ordered by police, court judges and some government officers.
When agreeing to a contract with a business, a customer may agree to certain rules. If the customer breaks the rules, then they agree to pay a fine for doing so. For example, when somebody hires a car and agrees to return it by Friday, they agree that if they do not return the car by Friday, they must pay a $50 fine to the business.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
284
|
Frying
|
**Frying** is [cooking](146) food in hot [butter](1943) or [vegetable oil](892) or other [fat](19532). We can fry food in a small amount of fat in a [pan](181324) or in a lot of oil in a [pot](7869). Some [restaurant](12293)s use [deep frying](307224) to fry a large amount of food.
|
**Frying** is cooking food in hot butter or vegetable oil or other fat. We can fry food in a small amount of fat in a pan or in a lot of oil in a pot. Some restaurants use deep frying to fry a large amount of food.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
285
|
Fish
|
**Fish** (plural: fish or fishes) are a group of animals which live in water and [respire](41024) (get [oxygen](2949)) from their gills. As a group, they are much older than other vertebrates. The first fish developed about 500 million years ago.
Shell fish such as the [crab](41160) or [lobster](48321) are actually small, boneless creatures that live in their own shell house or shell-like partial exterior, dwelling in seas and oceans. Some other examples include
- [Jawless fish](75873)
- Armoured fish
- [Cartilaginous fish](75918)
- [Ray-finned fish](75110)
- [Lobe-finned fish](75101).
There are more fish than four-limbed animals: there are over 33,000 described species of fish. Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm).
There are many different kinds of fish. The thing to remember is that they all have [adaptations](191821), which are the features which let them live in the way they do. Yes, they do all live in water. But living in a fast-flowing river is different from living in a slow-moving river. In the sea, it matters the depth they live at. They live in [fresh water](230229) in [lake](4031)s and [river](673)s (freshwater fish), and in [salt water](15247) (marine fish) in the oceans. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the [whale shark](15244), which can be almost 15 [meters](518) long and weigh 15 [ton](724663)s. Almost all fish live in the water. A group of fish called the [lungfish](130138) have developed [lung](18820)s because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They [burrow](87956) into mud and [aestivate](309070) until the water returns.
The English word "fish" is not just one [phylum](22324). Some fish are more closely related to land animals than they are to other fish. For example, lobe-finned fish were the first [animals with bones](5899) to come live on land, and all land animals are their descendants. Lobe-finned fish are more closely related to humans than to ray-finned fish.
## Types of fish
"Fish" is not a formal [taxonomic](849) grouping in systematic biology. [Amphibians](6090), [reptiles](46319), [birds](3707) and [mammals](74265) all descended from lobe-finned fish. But the use of the term "fish" is so convenient that we go on using it.
Fish are the oldest vertebrate group. The term includes a huge range of types, from the Middle [Ordovician](218064), about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups:
- [Agnatha](75873): the jawless fish. [Cambrian](82809) to present day.
- [Pteraspid](547741)s: the head-shields
- Anaspids: gills opened as holes. [Silurian](218066) to end-[Devonian](218075).
- [Cephalaspid](928719)s: early jawless fish
- [Lamprey](279134)s: living ectoparasites
- Osteostraci: bony-armoured jawless fish.
- [Gnathostomata](75844): the jawed fish. Includes all types commonly called fish, except the lamprey.
- [Placoderm](230173)s: heavily armoured fish
- [Chondrichthyes](75918): cartilaginous fish: [shark](9067)s, [ray](15275)s and [skate](40965)s.
- [Acanthodii](284714): extinct spiny sharks
- [Osteichthyes](75916): bony fish.
- [Actinopterygii](75110): the ray-finned fish.
- [Chondrostei](274100): [sturgeon](117855)s and some other early types.
- [Neopterygii](300775): first seen in the later Permian, lighter and faster-moving than previous groups.
- [Holostei](300776): the [gar](699617)s and [bowfin](954263)s
- [Teleost](230189)ei: the most successful group, [Triassic](46202) to present day.
- [Sarcopterygii](75101): the lobe-finned fish
- Dipnoi: the [lungfish](130138); eight genera survive.
- [Coelacanth](78043)s: two [species](19654) survive. They were probably a sister-group to the [tetrapod](74195)s.
Certain animals that have the word _fish_ in their name are not really fish: [crayfish](125624) are Crustacea, and [jellyfish](15300) are [Cnidaria](55402). Some animals look like fish, but are not. [Whale](7597)s and [dolphin](14162)s are [mammal](525)s, for example.
### Bony and cartilaginous fish
Most kinds of fish have [bone](15304)s. Some kinds of fish, such as [shark](9067)s and [ray](15275)s, do not have real bones. Their [skeleton](17184)s are made of [cartilage](40429), and so they are known as cartilaginous fish.
### Fish scales
All fish are covered with overlapping [scales](92330), and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called _leptoid_ scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to [tail](29367) direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have _placoid_ scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping.
The scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator.
There are various types of [eel](24953): most are in the Anguilliformes. Their life-style has evolved many times. Eels have scales with smooth edges or are absent.
## [Freshwater fish](673845)
41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are [salmon](20095), [trout](18972), the sea lamprey, and three-spined [stickleback](214886). Some fish are born in salt water, but live most of their mature lives in fresh water: for example the eels.
Species like these change their [physiology](638) to cope with the amount of salt in the water.
## [Saltwater fish](987349)
59% of fish live in saltwater and are known as marine fish. Some of the common marine fish are from the family [Pomacentridae](1041303) and sub-family [Pomacentrinae](1042198). Many of the smaller, colourful marine fish are used in [aquarium](38465)s.
## Swimming
Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body. This starts waves of flexion which travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along.
Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability. This is needed, for example, when living in coral reefs. Such fish cannot swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins.
### Muscle
Fish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different [physiology](638). The red fibres are continued in the middle of the body along the spine and usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres.
The white fibres get their energy by converting the [carbohydrate](119077) [glycogen](56831) to lactate ([lactic acid](195553)). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need [oxygen](2949). They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced. Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts.
Swimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate [aerobic](286402)ally. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain [myoglobin](236362). Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising [fat](19532), which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or [protein](636). Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 35 lengths per second for long periods.
### Swimming in groups
Many fish swim in groups. Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'.
## Body shape
The shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:-
The picture on the right shows a [shark](9067). This shark's shape is called _fusiform_, and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly. Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like [marlin](304686)s, [swordfish](74366), and [tuna](15276). Land animals which change to living in the sea may develop (evolve) shapes similar to fishes. [Ichthyosaur](110918)s, [porpoise](30975)s, [dolphin](14162)s, [killer whale](31043)s all have similar shapes. This is an example of [convergent evolution](106051).
### Eel-like
The long, ribbon-like shape of an [eel](24953)'s body shows another shape. This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot.
### Flatfish
[Flatfish](26396) live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use [camouflage](51517): they change colours to match the ocean floor. During their early lives, their eyes move to the upper side of their flat body.
[Reef](69419) fish also have flat bodies, and their body is often highly coloured. Flat bodies can slip in and out among the [coral](46262)s, sponges, and rocks, avoiding predators. [Angelfish](232004), surgeonfish, and [butterflyfish](232002) are examples.
## Fish as food
People eat many different kinds of fish. These include [carp](15256), [cod](15266), [herring](15271), [perch](51896), [sardine](15302)s, [sturgeon](117855), [tilapia](15301), [trout](18972), [tuna](15276), and many others. A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a [fishmonger](307223).
The word _to fish_ is also used for the activity of catching fishes. People catch fish with small [nets](539) from the side of the water or from small [boat](5817)s, or with big [nets](539) from big boats. People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with [bait](80277). This is often called [angling](345790). Anglers also different types of [fishing lure](232194)s.
Because people are catching too many fish for food or other uses such as for sport, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as [overfishing](344042).
## Fish as pets
Selective breeding of [carp](15256) made them into the domesticated [koi](304342) in [Japan](403), and [goldfish](21630) in [China](120). This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The [Chinese](441446) brought their [goldfish](21630) indoors during the [Song Dynasty](46775). They kept them in large [ceramic](48893) vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks.
## Related pages
- [Shark](9067)
|
**Fish** (plural: fish or fishes) are a group of animals which live in water and respire (get oxygen) from their gills. As a group, they are much older than other vertebrates. The first fish developed about 500 million years ago.
Shell fish such as the crab or lobster are actually small, boneless creatures that live in their own shell house or shell-like partial exterior, dwelling in seas and oceans. Some other examples include
- Jawless fish
- Armoured fish
- Cartilaginous fish
- Ray-finned fish
- Lobe-finned fish.
There are more fish than four-limbed animals: there are over 33,000 described species of fish. Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm).
There are many different kinds of fish. The thing to remember is that they all have adaptations, which are the features which let them live in the way they do. Yes, they do all live in water. But living in a fast-flowing river is different from living in a slow-moving river. In the sea, it matters the depth they live at. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers (freshwater fish), and in salt water (marine fish) in the oceans. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Almost all fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns.
The English word "fish" is not just one phylum. Some fish are more closely related to land animals than they are to other fish. For example, lobe-finned fish were the first animals with bones to come live on land, and all land animals are their descendants. Lobe-finned fish are more closely related to humans than to ray-finned fish.
## Types of fish
"Fish" is not a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals all descended from lobe-finned fish. But the use of the term "fish" is so convenient that we go on using it.
Fish are the oldest vertebrate group. The term includes a huge range of types, from the Middle Ordovician, about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups:
- Agnatha: the jawless fish. Cambrian to present day.
- Pteraspids: the head-shields
- Anaspids: gills opened as holes. Silurian to end-Devonian.
- Cephalaspids: early jawless fish
- Lampreys: living ectoparasites
- Osteostraci: bony-armoured jawless fish.
- Gnathostomata: the jawed fish. Includes all types commonly called fish, except the lamprey.
- Placoderms: heavily armoured fish
- Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays and skates.
- Acanthodii: extinct spiny sharks
- Osteichthyes: bony fish.
- Actinopterygii: the ray-finned fish.
- Chondrostei: sturgeons and some other early types.
- Neopterygii: first seen in the later Permian, lighter and faster-moving than previous groups.
- Holostei: the gars and bowfins
- Teleostei: the most successful group, Triassic to present day.
- Sarcopterygii: the lobe-finned fish
- Dipnoi: the lungfish; eight genera survive.
- Coelacanths: two species survive. They were probably a sister-group to the tetrapods.
Certain animals that have the word _fish_ in their name are not really fish: crayfish are Crustacea, and jellyfish are Cnidaria. Some animals look like fish, but are not. Whales and dolphins are mammals, for example.
### Bony and cartilaginous fish
Most kinds of fish have bones. Some kinds of fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have real bones. Their skeletons are made of cartilage, and so they are known as cartilaginous fish.
### Fish scales
All fish are covered with overlapping scales, and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called _leptoid_ scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to tail direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have _placoid_ scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping.
The scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator.
There are various types of eel: most are in the Anguilliformes. Their life-style has evolved many times. Eels have scales with smooth edges or are absent.
## Freshwater fish
41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are salmon, trout, the sea lamprey, and three-spined stickleback. Some fish are born in salt water, but live most of their mature lives in fresh water: for example the eels.
Species like these change their physiology to cope with the amount of salt in the water.
## Saltwater fish
59% of fish live in saltwater and are known as marine fish. Some of the common marine fish are from the family Pomacentridae and sub-family Pomacentrinae. Many of the smaller, colourful marine fish are used in aquariums.
## Swimming
Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body. This starts waves of flexion which travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along.
Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability. This is needed, for example, when living in coral reefs. Such fish cannot swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins.
### Muscle
Fish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different physiology. The red fibres are continued in the middle of the body along the spine and usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres.
The white fibres get their energy by converting the carbohydrate glycogen to lactate (lactic acid). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need oxygen. They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced. Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts.
Swimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate aerobically. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain myoglobin. Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising fat, which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or protein. Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 35 lengths per second for long periods.
### Swimming in groups
Many fish swim in groups. Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'.
## Body shape
The shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:-
The picture on the right shows a shark. This shark's shape is called _fusiform_, and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly. Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like marlins, swordfish, and tuna. Land animals which change to living in the sea may develop (evolve) shapes similar to fishes. Ichthyosaurs, porpoises, dolphins, killer whales all have similar shapes. This is an example of convergent evolution.
### Eel-like
The long, ribbon-like shape of an eel's body shows another shape. This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot.
### Flatfish
Flatfish live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use camouflage: they change colours to match the ocean floor. During their early lives, their eyes move to the upper side of their flat body.
Reef fish also have flat bodies, and their body is often highly coloured. Flat bodies can slip in and out among the corals, sponges, and rocks, avoiding predators. Angelfish, surgeonfish, and butterflyfish are examples.
## Fish as food
People eat many different kinds of fish. These include carp, cod, herring, perch, sardines, sturgeon, tilapia, trout, tuna, and many others. A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a fishmonger.
The word _to fish_ is also used for the activity of catching fishes. People catch fish with small nets from the side of the water or from small boats, or with big nets from big boats. People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with bait. This is often called angling. Anglers also different types of fishing lures.
Because people are catching too many fish for food or other uses such as for sport, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as overfishing.
## Fish as pets
Selective breeding of carp made them into the domesticated koi in Japan, and goldfish in China. This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The Chinese brought their goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty. They kept them in large ceramic vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks.
## Related pages
- Shark
|
high
| false
| false
|
286
|
Foot (human)
|
- _Foot is also the name of a unit of measurement. See [foot (unit)](22673).
A **foot** (one _foot_, two or more **feet**) is a [body](4361) part on the end of a [leg](3033). It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to [kick](25415), in both fighting and [sport](699)s, [football](3039) being an example.
People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five _digits_ (the fingers and toes). Many other [animals with backbones](5899) also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the _heel_. The bottom of the foot is called the _sole_.
Most land [vertebrate](5899)<nowiki/>s have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of [monkey](16133)s are much like the hands. The hard foot of an [ungulate](52327) is a [hoof](97609). When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, it is called a _[paw](176715)_. Many invertebrates also have feet.
Many use [footwear](4712) to protect themselves from [weather](3399) and [dirt](24103). There are multiple kinds of footwear, for example _sandals_, _[shoe](4711)s_, and _[boot](70)s_. When people do not remove footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (_foot odour)_. Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet, causing blisters. People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in many countries, usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials. In Japan it is also important to keep the floors clean. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially if they are damaged.
Conditions like [Athlete's foot](44457) affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked. Doctors who work with people's feet are _podiatrists_ or _chiropodists''.
## Bones
Half the bones in a human body are in the foot. There are 26 [bone](15304)s there. They are 14 [phalanges](120568) (toes), 5 metatarsals (arch of the foot), and 7 [tarsals](120779) ([ankle](19503) bones).
|
- _Foot is also the name of a unit of measurement. See foot (unit).
A **foot** (one _foot_, two or more **feet**) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.
People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five _digits_ (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the _heel_. The bottom of the foot is called the _sole_.
Most land vertebrate<nowiki/>s have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, it is called a _paw_. Many invertebrates also have feet.
Many use footwear to protect themselves from weather and dirt. There are multiple kinds of footwear, for example _sandals_, _shoes_, and _boots_. When people do not remove footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (_foot odour)_. Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet, causing blisters. People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in many countries, usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials. In Japan it is also important to keep the floors clean. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially if they are damaged.
Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked. Doctors who work with people's feet are _podiatrists_ or _chiropodists''.
## Bones
Half the bones in a human body are in the foot. There are 26 bones there. They are 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (arch of the foot), and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).
|
medium
| false
| false
|
291
|
France
|
**France** ( or ; ), officially the **French Republic** (, ), is a country in [Western Europe](45219). It also includes various departments and territories of France overseas.
## Infobox (infobox)
- **child**: yes
- **regional languages**: See Languages of France
- **label1**: Nationality
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: French Republic
- **common name**: France
- **image flag**: Flag of France.svg
- **image coat**: Armoiries république française.svg
- **symbol width**: 75px
- **symbol type**: Emblem
- **national motto**: ""
- **englishmotto**: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
- **national anthem**: "La Marseillaise"
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
- **map caption**: (Note the overseas department of French Guiana highlighted on the extreme lefthand side of the globe image.)
- **image map2**: France in the World (+Antarctica claims).svg
- **capital**: Paris
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: Official language
- **languages**: French
- **religion year**: 2017
- **demonym**: French
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic
- **leader title1**: President of France, President
- **leader name1**: Emmanuel Macron
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of France, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Sébastien Lecornu
- **leader title3**: List of Presidents of the Senate of France, President of the Senate
- **leader name3**: Gérard Larcher
- **leader title4**: List of Presidents of the National Assembly of France, President of the National Assembly
- **leader name4**: Yaël Braun-Pivet
- **legislature**: French Parliament, Parliament
- **upper house**: Senate (France), Senate
- **lower house**: National Assembly (France), National Assembly
- **sovereignty type**: History of France, Establishment
- **established event1**: Baptism of Clovis I
- **established date1**: 25 December 496
- **established event2**: Treaty of Verdun
- **established date2**: August 843
- **established event3**: Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy, Republic established
- **established date3**: 22 September 1792
- **established event4**: Enlargement of the European Union#Founding members, Founded the European Economic Community, EEC
- **established date4**: 1 January 1958
- **established event5**: Constitution of France, Current constitution
- **established date5**: 4 October 1958
- **area km2**: 640,679
- **area rank**: 42nd
- **area sq mi**: 248,600
- **area label2**: Metropolitan France (Institut géographique national, IGN)
- **area data2**: (List of countries and dependencies by area, 50th)
- **area label3**: Metropolitan France (Cadastre)
- **area data3**: (List of countries and dependencies by area, 50th)
- **population estimate**: 67,818,000
- **population estimate year**: Feb 2022
- **population estimate rank**: 20th
- **population label2**: Density
- **population data2**: (List of countries and territories by population density, 106th)
- **population label3**: Metropolitan France, estimate as of June 2020
- **population data3**: 64,910,000 (List of countries and dependencies by population, 22nd)
- **population density km2**: 116
- **population density sq mi**: 301
- **population density rank**: 89th
- **gdp ppp**: $3.061 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp rank**: 10th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $47,223
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 26th
- **gdp nominal**: $2.707 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal rank**: 7th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $41,761
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 22nd
- **gini**: 28.5
- **gini year**: 2018
- **gini change**: decrease
- **hdi**: 0.891
- **hdi year**: 2018
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 26th
- **time zone**: Central European Time
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy (Anno Domini, AD)
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in France, +33
- **cctld**: .fr
- **footnotes**: Source gives area of metropolitan France as 551,500 km2 (212,900 sq mi) and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89,179 km<sub>2</sub> (34,432 sq mi). Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic. The World Factbook reports the total as 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi).
|
**France** ( or ; ), officially the **French Republic** (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It also includes various departments and territories of France overseas.
## Infobox (infobox)
- **child**: yes
- **regional languages**: See Languages of France
- **label1**: Nationality
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: French Republic
- **common name**: France
- **image flag**: Flag of France.svg
- **image coat**: Armoiries république française.svg
- **symbol width**: 75px
- **symbol type**: Emblem
- **national motto**: ""
- **englishmotto**: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
- **national anthem**: "La Marseillaise"
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
- **map caption**: (Note the overseas department of French Guiana highlighted on the extreme lefthand side of the globe image.)
- **image map2**: France in the World (+Antarctica claims).svg
- **capital**: Paris
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: Official language
- **languages**: French
- **religion year**: 2017
- **demonym**: French
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic
- **leader title1**: President of France, President
- **leader name1**: Emmanuel Macron
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of France, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Sébastien Lecornu
- **leader title3**: List of Presidents of the Senate of France, President of the Senate
- **leader name3**: Gérard Larcher
- **leader title4**: List of Presidents of the National Assembly of France, President of the National Assembly
- **leader name4**: Yaël Braun-Pivet
- **legislature**: French Parliament, Parliament
- **upper house**: Senate (France), Senate
- **lower house**: National Assembly (France), National Assembly
- **sovereignty type**: History of France, Establishment
- **established event1**: Baptism of Clovis I
- **established date1**: 25 December 496
- **established event2**: Treaty of Verdun
- **established date2**: August 843
- **established event3**: Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy, Republic established
- **established date3**: 22 September 1792
- **established event4**: Enlargement of the European Union#Founding members, Founded the European Economic Community, EEC
- **established date4**: 1 January 1958
- **established event5**: Constitution of France, Current constitution
- **established date5**: 4 October 1958
- **area km2**: 640,679
- **area rank**: 42nd
- **area sq mi**: 248,600
- **area label2**: Metropolitan France (Institut géographique national, IGN)
- **area data2**: (List of countries and dependencies by area, 50th)
- **area label3**: Metropolitan France (Cadastre)
- **area data3**: (List of countries and dependencies by area, 50th)
- **population estimate**: 67,818,000
- **population estimate year**: Feb 2022
- **population estimate rank**: 20th
- **population label2**: Density
- **population data2**: (List of countries and territories by population density, 106th)
- **population label3**: Metropolitan France, estimate as of June 2020
- **population data3**: 64,910,000 (List of countries and dependencies by population, 22nd)
- **population density km2**: 116
- **population density sq mi**: 301
- **population density rank**: 89th
- **gdp ppp**: $3.061 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp rank**: 10th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $47,223
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 26th
- **gdp nominal**: $2.707 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal rank**: 7th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $41,761
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 22nd
- **gini**: 28.5
- **gini year**: 2018
- **gini change**: decrease
- **hdi**: 0.891
- **hdi year**: 2018
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 26th
- **time zone**: Central European Time
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy (Anno Domini, AD)
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in France, +33
- **cctld**: .fr
- **footnotes**: Source gives area of metropolitan France as 551,500 km2 (212,900 sq mi) and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89,179 km<sub>2</sub> (34,432 sq mi). Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic. The World Factbook reports the total as 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi).
|
high
| true
| false
|
292
|
Finland
|
**Finland** ([Finnish](22220): _Suomi_) is a [country](121) in Northern [Europe](216) and is a member state of the [European Union](2132). Finland is one of the [Nordic countries](50198) and is also part of [Fennoscandia](500692). Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are [Sweden](2136) to the west, [Norway](3460) to the north, [Russia](2964) to the east and [Estonia](4096) to the south, beyond the sea called [Gulf of Finland](50652). Most of the western and southern coast is on the shore of the [Baltic Sea](9140).
The capital of Finland is [Helsinki](7764); the second largest city is [Tampere](33216). The official [currency](2140) of the country is the [euro](2139) (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The [president](4044) of Finland is [Alexander Stubb](455362). 5.5 million people live in Finland. [Finnish](22220) and [Swedish](27517) both are the official [language](419)s of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became [independent](6421) of [Russia](31673) on 6 December 1917.
The most important cities and towns in Finland are [Helsinki](7764), [Espoo](9579), [Tampere](33216), [Vantaa](33257), [Turku](20614), [Oulu](42690), [Lahti](20483), [Kuopio](7152), [Jyväskylä](8318) and [Pori](411269).
Finland is a highly industrialised [First World](16527) country. The most important Finnish industrial products are [paper](3319), and [steel](8299) products such as machines and electronics. [Nokia](23572) (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called [Nokia](411613).
Finland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the [Corruption Perceptions Index](307236) more times than any other country.
## People and culture
The people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak [Finnish](22220) as their mother tongue. About six percent of Finns have the [Swedish language](27517) as their mother tongue. They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on Åland (Finnish Ahvenanmaa).
Finns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like [sauna](17908)s and [nature](547). Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important [festival](43661)s that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and [Christmas](3317).
The most popular sports in Finland are [ice hockey](9451), [skiing](57608), track and field and [association football](2062) (soccer). Finns have also won events in [swimming](314162), [motor sports](107741) and [gymnastics](53962).
There is a group of a few thousand [Sámi](50109)s (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in [Norway](3460) and [Sweden](2136). Many Sami people farm [reindeer](26687)s. Originally, Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were [nomad](44323)s, but nowadays they live in regular houses.
Minority groups in Finland include Swedish–speakers (5.3 per cent), Russian-speakers (1.4 per cent), [Estonians](198269) (0.9 per cent), [Roma](89852) (0.2 per cent), and Sámi (0.1 per cent). There is a also small number of Jews.
Very few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country.
## Nature and weather
Most of Finland is covered by pine [forest](13253). It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the [European Union](2132) are in Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland.
The national animal of Finland is the [brown bear](541441). The [swan](21955), which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family. Other large animals (in the wild) are [wolves](12329).
There are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. [Fishing](10000) is a popular [sport](699). It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland.
Many islands in the [Baltic Sea](9140) belong to Finland. Thousands of islands are part of the Åland [archipelago](9157). Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland.
The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long.
The weather in Finland varies widely by season. Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +30 °C. Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -40 °C. Highest temperature recorded in Finland is +37,2 °C and lowest temperature is -51,5 °C. Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland.
## History
People first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an [ice age](47635), after a glacier that covered the ground had receded.
Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the [Finnish language](22220) that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the [Iron Age](5291). (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500–800 years ago).
The first residents in Finland hunted animals, as "[hunter-gatherer](101291)s". Some people started to [farm](71284) crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age.
The ancient Finns were [pagans](21132). The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was [Ukko](50204). He was a god of [sky](2004) and [thunder](5460), much like [Odin](20468), another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon [Odin](20468), all the way east to [Zeus](10594) of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans.
Around a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity. During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as [bear worship](208712).
From the [Middle Ages](6593) Finland was a part of [Sweden](2136). Then, in the year 1809, [Russia](2964) took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became [autonomous](58842). The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the _markka_), their own stamps and own [custom](5110)s. However, Finland did not have its own [army](2115).
During the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland:
the [Social Democrats](920472) organised the general strike of 1905 (). The Red Guards were formed. On , Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called [Suomenlinna](533579)), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours.
### After independence
On 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a [communist revolution](40355) in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the [Soviet Union](3600). There were [communists](4070) in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland
This attempt at revolution caused the [Finnish civil war](827541). The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system
Stalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a [capitalist](12446) country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a [communist](4070) state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the [Winter War](53329). The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of [Karelia](50310) and other parts of Finland.
[Adolf Hitler](4457) was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with [Operation Barbarossa](356489) in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the [Continuation War](179231) in Finland. However, Finland was not a [fascist](15210) or an [antisemitic](6426) country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship.
While Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to [Norway](3460), burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the [Lapland War](1172346). Finland remained independent.
After the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like [paper](3319) and [steel](8299). More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had [Internet](362) connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes [mobile phone](26786)s, [Nokia](23572), is from Finland.
Finland joined the [European Union](2132) in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the [euro](2139) in 2002.
Finland joined [NATO](24563) in 2023, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
## Economy
Finland has a mixed economy. [Free market](134707) controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium.
In 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product.
The largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was [Nokia](23572). Two forest industries [Stora Enso](107932) and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets.
## Elections
[Election](3790)s are organized to select 200 members to the [Parliament](4075) of Finland. Also selected are the [president](4044) of Finland, members of town and [city council](139698)s and Finnish members to the [European Parliament](47602). The [election](3790)s are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a [political party](606). All the other elections are [proportional](67619). The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties. The right to vote is universal and equal. In general elections everybody has one vote.
## Famous Finnish people
- Alvar Aalto, architect
- Markku Alen, 1978 World Rally Champion
- [Valtteri Bottas](932407), current Formula One driver
- The Dudesons, also known as Duudsonit, a four-man stunt group with several TV shows and a movie. Close friends with the Jackass crew
- [Akseli Gallen-Kallela](525785), artist
- Marcus Gronholm, 2000/02 World Rally Champion
- [Mika Häkkinen](112936), 1998 and 1999 Formula One World Champion
- [Tarja Halonen](20613), former President of Finland
- Tuomas Holopainen, founder of the internationally famous band [Nightwish](19625)
- [Sami Hyypiä](139302), football coach; 2005 UEFA Champions League winner
- Juha Kankkunen, 1986/87/91/93 World Rally Champion
- [Urho Kekkonen](86522), former President of Finland during the cold war
- [Jari Kurri](523845), 5 time Stanley Cup Winner, NHL Hall Of Famer
- [Eino Leino](440366), poet
- [Elias Lönnrot](440424), compiler of National epic [Kalevala](50312)
- [Jari Litmanen](136561), footballer; 1995 [UEFA Champions League](23065) winner
- Tommi Makinen, 1996-99 World Rally Champion
- [Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim](674782), a president and military commander
- Karita Mattila, world famous opera singer, winner of the first Cardiff singer of the world competition
- [Hannu Mikkola](825299), 1983 World Rally Champion
- [Sauli Niinistö](369586), former President of Finland
- [Paavo Nurmi](532707), famous Olympic long-distance runner
- [Kimi Räikkönen](112762), 2007 Formula One World Champion
- [Keke Rosberg](575994), 1982 Formula One World Champion
- Timo Salonen, 1985 World Rally Champion
- Timo Sarpaneva, famous designer mainly in glass
- Teemu Selanne, 2007 Stanley Cup Winner
- [Jean Sibelius](45975), the most important Finnish composer
- [Lauri Törni](447616), later known as Larry Thorne, a winner of the Mannerheim Cross during the [Continuation War](179231)
- [Linus Torvalds](7508), the creator of [Linux](3620)
- [Tarja Turunen](168955), former member of the internationally famous band [Nightwish](19625)
- [Ville Valo](61761), Lead Singer songwriter of [HIM](1076293)
- Ari Vatanen, 1981 World Rally Champion
- Tapio Wirkkala, designer and artist
## Other websites
- [History](http://virtual.finland.fi/History)
- [Finland Travel Community - Discussion Forum (English)](http://www.finlandlive.info)
- [Finland](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Finland) -Citizendium
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Finland
- **common name**: Finland
- **image flag**: Flag of Finland.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Finland.svg
- **national anthem**:
()
- **image map**: EU-Finland.svg
- **capital**: Helsinki
- **largest city**: capital
- **regional languages**: Sami dialects
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Parliamentary system, parliamentary republic
- **leader title1**: President of Finland, President
- **leader name1**: Alexander Stubb
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Finland, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Petteri Orpo
- **legislature**: _Parliament of Finland, Eduskunta_
- **sovereignty type**: History of Finland, Formation
- **established event1**: Grand Duchy of Finland, Autonomy
- **established date1**: 29 March 1809
- **established event2**: Finnish Declaration of Independence, Independence
- **established date2**: 6 December 1917
- **established event3**: 1995 enlargement of the European Union, Joined the European Union
- **established date3**: 1 January 1995
- **area km2**: 338,424
- **area rank**: 64th
- **area sq mi**: 130,596
- **percent water**: 10
- **population estimate**: 5,509,717
- **population estimate year**: August 2017
- **population estimate rank**: 114th
- **population label2**: 2016 official
- **population data2**: 5,503,297
- **population density km2**: 16
- **population density sq mi**: 41
- **population density rank**: 213rd
- **gdp ppp**: $255.976 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2018
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $46,342
- **gdp nominal**: $289.557 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2018
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $52,422
- **gini**: 25.6
- **gini year**: 2014
- **gini change**: increase increase
- **gini rank**: 6th
- **hdi**: 0.895
- **hdi year**: 2015
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 23rd
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **utc offset dst**: +3
- **time zone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **date format**: dd.mm.yyyy
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Finland, +358
- **patron saint**: Henry (bishop of Finland), St Henry of Uppsala
- **cctld**: .fi<sup>a</sup>
- **footnote a**: The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
|
**Finland** (Finnish: _Suomi_) is a country in Northern Europe and is a member state of the European Union. Finland is one of the Nordic countries and is also part of Fennoscandia. Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are Sweden to the west, Norway to the north, Russia to the east and Estonia to the south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of the western and southern coast is on the shore of the Baltic Sea.
The capital of Finland is Helsinki; the second largest city is Tampere. The official currency of the country is the euro (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The president of Finland is Alexander Stubb. 5.5 million people live in Finland. Finnish and Swedish both are the official languages of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became independent of Russia on 6 December 1917.
The most important cities and towns in Finland are Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa, Turku, Oulu, Lahti, Kuopio, Jyväskylä and Pori.
Finland is a highly industrialised First World country. The most important Finnish industrial products are paper, and steel products such as machines and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called Nokia.
Finland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index more times than any other country.
## People and culture
The people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue. About six percent of Finns have the Swedish language as their mother tongue. They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on Åland (Finnish Ahvenanmaa).
Finns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like saunas and nature. Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important festivals that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and Christmas.
The most popular sports in Finland are ice hockey, skiing, track and field and association football (soccer). Finns have also won events in swimming, motor sports and gymnastics.
There is a group of a few thousand Sámis (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in Norway and Sweden. Many Sami people farm reindeers. Originally, Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were nomads, but nowadays they live in regular houses.
Minority groups in Finland include Swedish–speakers (5.3 per cent), Russian-speakers (1.4 per cent), Estonians (0.9 per cent), Roma (0.2 per cent), and Sámi (0.1 per cent). There is a also small number of Jews.
Very few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country.
## Nature and weather
Most of Finland is covered by pine forest. It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the European Union are in Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland.
The national animal of Finland is the brown bear. The swan, which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family. Other large animals (in the wild) are wolves.
There are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. Fishing is a popular sport. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland.
Many islands in the Baltic Sea belong to Finland. Thousands of islands are part of the Åland archipelago. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland.
The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long.
The weather in Finland varies widely by season. Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +30 °C. Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -40 °C. Highest temperature recorded in Finland is +37,2 °C and lowest temperature is -51,5 °C. Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland.
## History
People first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an ice age, after a glacier that covered the ground had receded.
Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the Finnish language that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the Iron Age. (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500–800 years ago).
The first residents in Finland hunted animals, as "hunter-gatherers". Some people started to farm crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age.
The ancient Finns were pagans. The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was Ukko. He was a god of sky and thunder, much like Odin, another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon Odin, all the way east to Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans.
Around a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity. During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as bear worship.
From the Middle Ages Finland was a part of Sweden. Then, in the year 1809, Russia took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became autonomous. The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the _markka_), their own stamps and own customs. However, Finland did not have its own army.
During the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland:
the Social Democrats organised the general strike of 1905 (). The Red Guards were formed. On , Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called Suomenlinna), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours.
### After independence
On 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a communist revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the Soviet Union. There were communists in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland
This attempt at revolution caused the Finnish civil war. The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system
Stalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a capitalist country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a communist state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the Winter War. The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of Karelia and other parts of Finland.
Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the Continuation War in Finland. However, Finland was not a fascist or an antisemitic country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship.
While Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway, burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the Lapland War. Finland remained independent.
After the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like paper and steel. More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had Internet connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes mobile phones, Nokia, is from Finland.
Finland joined the European Union in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the euro in 2002.
Finland joined NATO in 2023, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
## Economy
Finland has a mixed economy. Free market controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium.
In 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product.
The largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was Nokia. Two forest industries Stora Enso and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets.
## Elections
Elections are organized to select 200 members to the Parliament of Finland. Also selected are the president of Finland, members of town and city councils and Finnish members to the European Parliament. The elections are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a political party. All the other elections are proportional. The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties. The right to vote is universal and equal. In general elections everybody has one vote.
## Famous Finnish people
- Alvar Aalto, architect
- Markku Alen, 1978 World Rally Champion
- Valtteri Bottas, current Formula One driver
- The Dudesons, also known as Duudsonit, a four-man stunt group with several TV shows and a movie. Close friends with the Jackass crew
- Akseli Gallen-Kallela, artist
- Marcus Gronholm, 2000/02 World Rally Champion
- Mika Häkkinen, 1998 and 1999 Formula One World Champion
- Tarja Halonen, former President of Finland
- Tuomas Holopainen, founder of the internationally famous band Nightwish
- Sami Hyypiä, football coach; 2005 UEFA Champions League winner
- Juha Kankkunen, 1986/87/91/93 World Rally Champion
- Urho Kekkonen, former President of Finland during the cold war
- Jari Kurri, 5 time Stanley Cup Winner, NHL Hall Of Famer
- Eino Leino, poet
- Elias Lönnrot, compiler of National epic Kalevala
- Jari Litmanen, footballer; 1995 UEFA Champions League winner
- Tommi Makinen, 1996-99 World Rally Champion
- Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, a president and military commander
- Karita Mattila, world famous opera singer, winner of the first Cardiff singer of the world competition
- Hannu Mikkola, 1983 World Rally Champion
- Sauli Niinistö, former President of Finland
- Paavo Nurmi, famous Olympic long-distance runner
- Kimi Räikkönen, 2007 Formula One World Champion
- Keke Rosberg, 1982 Formula One World Champion
- Timo Salonen, 1985 World Rally Champion
- Timo Sarpaneva, famous designer mainly in glass
- Teemu Selanne, 2007 Stanley Cup Winner
- Jean Sibelius, the most important Finnish composer
- Lauri Törni, later known as Larry Thorne, a winner of the Mannerheim Cross during the Continuation War
- Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux
- Tarja Turunen, former member of the internationally famous band Nightwish
- Ville Valo, Lead Singer songwriter of HIM
- Ari Vatanen, 1981 World Rally Champion
- Tapio Wirkkala, designer and artist
## Other websites
- History
- Finland Travel Community - Discussion Forum (English)
- Finland -Citizendium
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Finland
- **common name**: Finland
- **image flag**: Flag of Finland.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Finland.svg
- **national anthem**:
()
- **image map**: EU-Finland.svg
- **capital**: Helsinki
- **largest city**: capital
- **regional languages**: Sami dialects
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Parliamentary system, parliamentary republic
- **leader title1**: President of Finland, President
- **leader name1**: Alexander Stubb
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Finland, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Petteri Orpo
- **legislature**: _Parliament of Finland, Eduskunta_
- **sovereignty type**: History of Finland, Formation
- **established event1**: Grand Duchy of Finland, Autonomy
- **established date1**: 29 March 1809
- **established event2**: Finnish Declaration of Independence, Independence
- **established date2**: 6 December 1917
- **established event3**: 1995 enlargement of the European Union, Joined the European Union
- **established date3**: 1 January 1995
- **area km2**: 338,424
- **area rank**: 64th
- **area sq mi**: 130,596
- **percent water**: 10
- **population estimate**: 5,509,717
- **population estimate year**: August 2017
- **population estimate rank**: 114th
- **population label2**: 2016 official
- **population data2**: 5,503,297
- **population density km2**: 16
- **population density sq mi**: 41
- **population density rank**: 213rd
- **gdp ppp**: $255.976 billion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2018
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $46,342
- **gdp nominal**: $289.557 billion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2018
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $52,422
- **gini**: 25.6
- **gini year**: 2014
- **gini change**: increase increase
- **gini rank**: 6th
- **hdi**: 0.895
- **hdi year**: 2015
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 23rd
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **utc offset dst**: +3
- **time zone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **date format**: dd.mm.yyyy
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Finland, +358
- **patron saint**: Henry (bishop of Finland), St Henry of Uppsala
- **cctld**: .fi<sup>a</sup>
- **footnote a**: The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
|
high
| false
| false
|
293
|
Fruit
|
In [botany](102), a **fruit** is a plant structure that contains the plant's [seed](765)s.
To a [botanist](46184), the word _fruit_ is used only if it comes from the part of the [flower](7947) which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the [seed](765)s, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower.
In general speech, and especially in [cooking](146), some fruits are a [sweet](13407) product, but not all fruits are sweet, most fruits are fruity & edible, and many [botanical](102) fruits are known as [vegetable](8364)s. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what [botanist](46184)s call a fruit.
The fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an [apple](39), for example, is the "fleshy" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the "fleshy" part.
### Berry
If the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a [berry](91). A berry might contain one seed or many. [Grape](15731)s, [avocado](9442)s, and [blueberries](15742) are [berries](91). They all have a thin [skin](772), but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like [strawberries](231262), because actually they are _not_ berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are _inside_ the fruit.
### Pepo
A pepo (pronounced _pee' po_) is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a "rind". [Pumpkin](32269)s and [watermelon](12392)s, for instance, are pepos.
### Hesperidium
A hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a [leather](443)y skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All [citrus](777376) fruit like [oranges](45150) and [lemon](44590) are hesperidiums.
### Pome
A [pome](548758) (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are _inside_ the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. [Apple](39)s and [pear](15721)s are pomes.
### Drupe
[Drupes](33026) are also called [stone fruit](33026). A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. [Peach](15727)es and [olives](45573) are drupes. Actually, the [almond](45659) fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the [almond](45659) fruit.
## Botanical fruits
Since fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in [flower](7947)s, only [flowering plant](45879)s produce fruits. Fruits are an [evolution](8740)ary 'invention' which help [seed](765)s get dispersed by animals.
The botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables [squash](68068), [pumpkin](32269)s, [cucumber](128149)s, [tomato](15717), [pea](62110)s, [bean](60473)s, corn, eggplant, and [bell](52723) [pepper](52723) and some spices, such as [allspice](141832) and [chili](29187)
.
### Accessory fruits
An accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.
A [fig](15729) is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. [Pome](548758)s, such as [apple](39)s and [pear](15721)s, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit.
## Non-botanical fruits
Strictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits:
- any produced by non-flowering plants, like [juniper](191649) berries, which are the seed-containing female cones of conifers.
- fleshy fruit-like growths that develop from other plant tissues (like [rhubarb](16132)).
## Area of agreement
These are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits:
- berry fruits: [redcurrant](45508), [gooseberry](45461), [cranberry](336045), [blueberry](15742) Also, but not commonly known as berry fruits, are [tomato](15717), [avocado](9442), [banana](3715).
- false berries: [raspberry](15724), [strawberry](231262), [blackberry](15732): they are aggregate fruits (see below). The [yew](293205) berry is not a fruit at all because the yew is a [conifer](45866).
- [stone fruit](33026)s or drupes: [plum](15726), [cherry](15734), [peach](15727), [apricot](10013), [olive](45573).
- [citrus fruits](777376), like [oranges](45150), [grapefruit](15730)s, and [tangerine](45802)s.
- [aggregate fruit](390880)s: [raspberries](15724), [blackberries](15732).
- [multiple fruit](460244)s: [pineapple](15719)s, [fig](15729)s.
Many fruits come from [tree](847)s or [bushes](21014). For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by [animal](62)s. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get [excreted](259668). Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten.
Most fruits we eat contain a lot of [water](939) and [natural](547) [sugar](9642)s, and many are high in [Vitamin C](3880). They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in [protein](636) and [fat](19532) content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only [human](502310)s, but our closest living relatives ([primate](21276)s) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous [mammal](525)s and many [bird](3707)s.
## Seedless fruits
Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and [watermelon](12392)s are examples of seedless fruits. Some [citrus](777376) fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and [grapefruit](15730) are valued for their seedlessness.
Seedless bananas and grapes are [triploids](127857), and seedlessness results from the abortion of the [embryo](8178)nic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation.
## Related pages
- List of fruit
|
In botany, a **fruit** is a plant structure that contains the plant's seeds.
To a botanist, the word _fruit_ is used only if it comes from the part of the flower which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the seeds, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower.
In general speech, and especially in cooking, some fruits are a sweet product, but not all fruits are sweet, most fruits are fruity & edible, and many botanical fruits are known as vegetables. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what botanists call a fruit.
The fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an apple, for example, is the "fleshy" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the "fleshy" part.
### Berry
If the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a berry. A berry might contain one seed or many. Grapes, avocados, and blueberries are berries. They all have a thin skin, but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like strawberries, because actually they are _not_ berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are _inside_ the fruit.
### Pepo
A pepo (pronounced _pee' po_) is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a "rind". Pumpkins and watermelons, for instance, are pepos.
### Hesperidium
A hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a leathery skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All citrus fruit like oranges and lemon are hesperidiums.
### Pome
A pome (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are _inside_ the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. Apples and pears are pomes.
### Drupe
Drupes are also called stone fruit. A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. Peaches and olives are drupes. Actually, the almond fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the almond fruit.
## Botanical fruits
Since fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in flowers, only flowering plants produce fruits. Fruits are an evolutionary 'invention' which help seeds get dispersed by animals.
The botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomato, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and bell pepper and some spices, such as allspice and chili
.
### Accessory fruits
An accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.
A fig is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. Pomes, such as apples and pears, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit.
## Non-botanical fruits
Strictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits:
- any produced by non-flowering plants, like juniper berries, which are the seed-containing female cones of conifers.
- fleshy fruit-like growths that develop from other plant tissues (like rhubarb).
## Area of agreement
These are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits:
- berry fruits: redcurrant, gooseberry, cranberry, blueberry Also, but not commonly known as berry fruits, are tomato, avocado, banana.
- false berries: raspberry, strawberry, blackberry: they are aggregate fruits (see below). The yew berry is not a fruit at all because the yew is a conifer.
- stone fruits or drupes: plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive.
- citrus fruits, like oranges, grapefruits, and tangerines.
- aggregate fruits: raspberries, blackberries.
- multiple fruits: pineapples, figs.
Many fruits come from trees or bushes. For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by animals. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get excreted. Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten.
Most fruits we eat contain a lot of water and natural sugars, and many are high in Vitamin C. They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in protein and fat content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only humans, but our closest living relatives (primates) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous mammals and many birds.
## Seedless fruits
Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and watermelons are examples of seedless fruits. Some citrus fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and grapefruit are valued for their seedlessness.
Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation.
## Related pages
- List of fruit
|
high
| false
| false
|
294
|
Farm
|
A **farm** is a piece of [land](20961) used to grow [crop](11502)s and/or [raise animal](19450)s.
People who grow these plants or raise these animals are called [farmer](4912)s. This work is called [farming](19).
Land that is used to grow plants is called farmland. Land that is used to feed animals with its grass is called [pasture](23385). Land that can be used to grow plants for food is called [arable land](583139).
Many farms are very large and can cause damage. In some places farms are many and small, and can also cause damage. Farms provides most of the food for people. Some people farm to eat the food they produce (subsistence agriculture). Other farms, including large ones, sell their produced crops or animals, like [horses](1084417), to markets far away in [urban area](47705)s (commercial or industrial farming). Most subsistence farms are in poorer countries, while industrial farms are in richer countries.
## Kinds of farms
- A farm that produces [fruit](293)s or [nuts](90793) is called an _orchard_.
- A farm that produces [grape](15731)s is called a _vineyard_.
- A farm that raises and trains [horse](11275)s is called a _stable_.
- A farm that produces [milk](3398) and dairy products is called a _dairy farm_.
- If the animals are raised for [meat](4646) it is a [ranch](679).
- A large farm that produces non-essential crops like [tobacco](8925), [coffee](4715), [cotton](10288) or [sugarcane](41542) is called a [plantation](50640).
- A farm that produces [rice](5437) and [taro](181846) is called a [paddy field](872854).
## Related pages
- [Farming](19)
- [Ranch](679)
|
A **farm** is a piece of land used to grow crops and/or raise animals.
People who grow these plants or raise these animals are called farmers. This work is called farming.
Land that is used to grow plants is called farmland. Land that is used to feed animals with its grass is called pasture. Land that can be used to grow plants for food is called arable land.
Many farms are very large and can cause damage. In some places farms are many and small, and can also cause damage. Farms provides most of the food for people. Some people farm to eat the food they produce (subsistence agriculture). Other farms, including large ones, sell their produced crops or animals, like horses, to markets far away in urban areas (commercial or industrial farming). Most subsistence farms are in poorer countries, while industrial farms are in richer countries.
## Kinds of farms
- A farm that produces fruits or nuts is called an _orchard_.
- A farm that produces grapes is called a _vineyard_.
- A farm that raises and trains horses is called a _stable_.
- A farm that produces milk and dairy products is called a _dairy farm_.
- If the animals are raised for meat it is a ranch.
- A large farm that produces non-essential crops like tobacco, coffee, cotton or sugarcane is called a plantation.
- A farm that produces rice and taro is called a paddy field.
## Related pages
- Farming
- Ranch
|
high
| false
| false
|
296
|
Geography
|
**Geography** (from [Greek](16174): , _geographia_, literally "earth description") is the study of earth and its people and one of [social sciences](48767). Its features are things like [continent](117)s, [sea](420870)s, [river](673)s and [mountain](3924)s. Its inhabitants are all the people and [animal](62)s that live on it. Its phenomena are the things that happen like [tide](56178)s, [hurricane](19516)s, [tornado](22588)es, [earthquake](2081)s and more.
A person who is an expert in geography is a [geographer](86358). A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed.
Geography is divided into two main parts, which are: [Physical geography](409481) and [human geography](597343). Physical geography studies the natural [environment](13637) and human geography studies the human [environment](13637). The human environmental studies would include things such as the [population](4037) in a country, how a country's [economy](8377) is doing, and more. There is also environmental geography.
[Map](7647)s are a main tool of geography, so geographers spend much time making and studying them. Making maps is called [cartography](127), and people who specialize in making maps are cartographers.
### Physical geography
Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an [Earth science](218). It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of [lithosphere](60791), [hydrosphere](293310), atmosphere, pedosphere, and global [flora](71768) and [fauna](218890) patterns ([biosphere](38924)).
**Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:**
- {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
| || || ||
|-
| [Biogeography](42078) || [Climatology](78453) & [Meteorology](15231) || Coastal geography || Environmental management
|-
| || || ||
|-
| [Geodesy](326095) || [Geomorphology](267043) || [Glaciology](336276) || [Hydrology](79357) & [Hydrography](161675)
|-
| || || ||
|-
| Landscape ecology || [Oceanography](15248) || Pedology || Palaeogeography
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
| Quaternary science
|
|
|
|}
### Human geography
**[Human geography](597343)** is the [social science](48767) that covers the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies, and their interaction with the [environment](13637). [Geographers](86358) studying the human [environment](13637) may look at:
- [Population](4037)
- [Countries of the world](121)
- Land use
- [Agriculture](71284)
- [City](144)
- [Industry](166202)
- [Energy](4115)
- [Pollution](7638)
## History
The oldest known world map dates back to ancient [Babylon](33724) from the 9th century BC. The best known [Babylonia](24322)n world map is the _Imago Mundi_ of 600 BC. [Star chart](542312)s (maps of the sky) are of similar age.
During the [Middle Ages](6593), people in [Europe](216) made fewer maps. People in the eastern countries made more. Abū Zayd al-Balkhī created the "Balkhī school" of mapping in [Baghdad](7620).
[Western Europe](45219) became known as the leader of geographic thought during the European Renaissance and The Age of Exploration (1400–1600). The [printing press](32435) made maps and information about the world available to everyone. In 1650, the first edition of _[Geographia Generalis](1182711)_ was published.
In the 1700s and 1800s, scientists started to study the relationship between the [environment](13637) and its people
Related pages
- [Geodesy](326095)
- [Geographer](86358)
- [Geographical renaming](666097)
- [Geopolitics](446435)
- [International Geographical Union](448790)
- [Landform](54395)
- [Map](7647)
- [Navigator](287476)
- [Political geography](394454)
## Other websites
- [Geography Trainer 1.3 - Educational game aimed at school children](http://www.dinksoftware.com)
- [www.geoknow.net - Geography resources at your fingertips!](http://www.geoknow.net)
- [PopulationData.net](http://www.populationdata.net)
- [PopulationMondiale.com](http://www.populationmondiale.com)
- [Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.](http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/high.htm)
- [Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.](http://ericdigests.org/1992-5/geography.htm)
- [The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.](http://ericdigests.org/1996-1/geography.htm)
|
**Geography** (from Greek: , _geographia_, literally "earth description") is the study of earth and its people and one of social sciences. Its features are things like continents, seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants are all the people and animals that live on it. Its phenomena are the things that happen like tides, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes and more.
A person who is an expert in geography is a geographer. A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed.
Geography is divided into two main parts, which are: Physical geography and human geography. Physical geography studies the natural environment and human geography studies the human environment. The human environmental studies would include things such as the population in a country, how a country's economy is doing, and more. There is also environmental geography.
Maps are a main tool of geography, so geographers spend much time making and studying them. Making maps is called cartography, and people who specialize in making maps are cartographers.
### Physical geography
Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere).
**Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:**
- {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
| || || ||
|-
| Biogeography || Climatology & Meteorology || Coastal geography || Environmental management
|-
| || || ||
|-
| Geodesy || Geomorphology || Glaciology || Hydrology & Hydrography
|-
| || || ||
|-
| Landscape ecology || Oceanography || Pedology || Palaeogeography
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
| Quaternary science
|
|
|
|}
### Human geography
**Human geography** is the social science that covers the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies, and their interaction with the environment. Geographers studying the human environment may look at:
- Population
- Countries of the world
- Land use
- Agriculture
- City
- Industry
- Energy
- Pollution
## History
The oldest known world map dates back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map is the _Imago Mundi_ of 600 BC. Star charts (maps of the sky) are of similar age.
During the Middle Ages, people in Europe made fewer maps. People in the eastern countries made more. Abū Zayd al-Balkhī created the "Balkhī school" of mapping in Baghdad.
Western Europe became known as the leader of geographic thought during the European Renaissance and The Age of Exploration (1400–1600). The printing press made maps and information about the world available to everyone. In 1650, the first edition of _Geographia Generalis_ was published.
In the 1700s and 1800s, scientists started to study the relationship between the environment and its people
Related pages
- Geodesy
- Geographer
- Geographical renaming
- Geopolitics
- International Geographical Union
- Landform
- Map
- Navigator
- Political geography
## Other websites
- Geography Trainer 1.3 - Educational game aimed at school children
- www.geoknow.net - Geography resources at your fingertips!
- PopulationData.net
- PopulationMondiale.com
- Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.
- Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.
- The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.
|
high
| false
| false
|
299
|
Grammar
|
**Grammar** is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The [Ancient Greek](16174)s used to call it _grammatikē tékhnē_, the [craft](4669) of letters. It can have any of these meanings:
1. The study of a [language](419): how it works, and everything about it. This is _background research on language_.
1. The study of [sentence](7721) structure. Rules and examples show how the language should be used. This is a _correct usage grammar_, as in a [textbook](21689) or manual/guide.
1. The system which people learn as they grow up. This is the _native-speaker's grammar_.
When we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style.
## Languages
All languages have their own grammar. Most [Europe](216)an languages are rather similar.
### Indo-European languages
[English](2843) makes few changes to its word endings ('[suffix](3936)es'). In [Romance languages](9417) (such as [French](3597), [Italian](8249), and [Spanish](6432)), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (_John's_) are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but _she love**s**_. That final **'s**' comes from the [Anglo-Saxon](48111), which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walk**ed**, walk**ing**.
### Word order
[Word order](9237) is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put [adjective](3318)s after the [noun](543)s to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say _I like fast cars_, but in [Spanish](6432), it is _Me gustan los coches rápidos_. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In [German](3346), verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: _Die Katze hat das Futter gegessen_), whereas in English we usually put them between [subject](249308) and [object](249307), as: _the cat has eaten the food_.
## Language fluidity
Written grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more [fluid](45648). Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the [Authorized King James Version](103270) of the [Bible](2866), and from Shakespeare.
Different people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people. For example, people who use the dialects called General [American English](28) and [BBC English](159060) might say, _I didn't do anything_, while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, _I didn't do nothing_. [London](460) [working class](192585) version: _I ain't done nuffink!_ These are called _double negatives_, and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written.
These differences are called [dialect](21596)s. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for _spoken_ English in Britain are often called [Received Pronunciation](159060) or BBC English.
## Parts of speech
Grammar studies [noun](543)s, [pronoun](3828)s, [verb](893)s, [adjective](3318)s, [adverb](3829)s, [preposition](3826)s, [conjunction](115045)s, [sentence](7721)s, [phrase](3825)s, [clause](4774)s and [interjection](15961)s.
### Nouns
Nouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'. They are objects, things you see in everyday life. Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week. The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be [abstract](126005) things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'.
### Verbs
Verbs are words that describe actions: "Ryan threw the ball". State: "I am worried". The basic verb form is called the [infinitive](18194). The infinitive for existence is "to be". A famous example is the speech of [Hamlet](11546): _To be or not to be, that is the question_.
Variations of the infinitive create [verb tenses](893).
- <big> [Past tense](11111) = _was_</big>
- <big>[Present tense](351533) = _is_</big>
- <big>[Future tense](351535) = _will/shall_</big>
### Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in "pretty bicycle" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the "pretty" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in "that's a tall building" is describing the building.
## Syntax
Grammar studies [syntax](72198) which is how the "parts of speech" fit together and create [sentences](7721).
## Related pages
- Hebrew
- [Linguistics](20194)
- [Greek alphabet](18065)
- [Iranic languages](897166)
- [List of languages](4391)
- [Hebrew alphabet](776946)
- [Japonic languages](705045)
- [Phoenician alphabet](402004)
- Afro-Asiatic languages
- Indo-Iranian languages
- [Sino-Tibetan languages](143868)
- [Indo-European languages](33485)
|
**Grammar** is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The Ancient Greeks used to call it _grammatikē tékhnē_, the craft of letters. It can have any of these meanings:
1. The study of a language: how it works, and everything about it. This is _background research on language_.
1. The study of sentence structure. Rules and examples show how the language should be used. This is a _correct usage grammar_, as in a textbook or manual/guide.
1. The system which people learn as they grow up. This is the _native-speaker's grammar_.
When we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style.
## Languages
All languages have their own grammar. Most European languages are rather similar.
### Indo-European languages
English makes few changes to its word endings ('suffixes'). In Romance languages (such as French, Italian, and Spanish), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (_John's_) are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but _she love**s**_. That final **'s**' comes from the Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walk**ed**, walk**ing**.
### Word order
Word order is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put adjectives after the nouns to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say _I like fast cars_, but in Spanish, it is _Me gustan los coches rápidos_. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: _Die Katze hat das Futter gegessen_), whereas in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: _the cat has eaten the food_.
## Language fluidity
Written grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more fluid. Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, and from Shakespeare.
Different people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people. For example, people who use the dialects called General American English and BBC English might say, _I didn't do anything_, while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, _I didn't do nothing_. London working class version: _I ain't done nuffink!_ These are called _double negatives_, and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written.
These differences are called dialects. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for _spoken_ English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English.
## Parts of speech
Grammar studies nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, sentences, phrases, clauses and interjections.
### Nouns
Nouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'. They are objects, things you see in everyday life. Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week. The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be abstract things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'.
### Verbs
Verbs are words that describe actions: "Ryan threw the ball". State: "I am worried". The basic verb form is called the infinitive. The infinitive for existence is "to be". A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: _To be or not to be, that is the question_.
Variations of the infinitive create verb tenses.
- <big> Past tense = _was_</big>
- <big>Present tense = _is_</big>
- <big>Future tense = _will/shall_</big>
### Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in "pretty bicycle" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the "pretty" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in "that's a tall building" is describing the building.
## Syntax
Grammar studies syntax which is how the "parts of speech" fit together and create sentences.
## Related pages
- Hebrew
- Linguistics
- Greek alphabet
- Iranic languages
- List of languages
- Hebrew alphabet
- Japonic languages
- Phoenician alphabet
- Afro-Asiatic languages
- Indo-Iranian languages
- Sino-Tibetan languages
- Indo-European languages
|
high
| false
| false
|
300
|
Great Lakes
|
The **Great Lakes** are five large [lake](4031)s in east-central [North America](557). They hold 21% of the world's [surface](11189) [fresh water](230229).
The five lakes are: [Lake Superior](15941), [Lake Michigan](3226), [Lake Huron](19299), [Lake Erie](19306), and [Lake Ontario](15940).
## Geography
Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between [Canada](219589) and the [United States of America](219587). The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.
All together, by [volume](895), they are the largest group of [fresh water](230229) lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than [Lake Baikal](20092) ([Russia](2964)) or [Lake Tanganyika](25053) ([East Africa](124804)).
The cities of [Chicago](10193), [Illinois](11192) (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), [Toronto](2210), [Ontario](5012) (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); [Detroit](8540), [Michigan](5034) (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); [Montreal](474), [Quebec](649) (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), [Cleveland](14382), [Ohio](9240) (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), [Buffalo](15966), and [Ottawa](3838) (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.
Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the [Detroit River](408688) into Lake Erie; then through [Niagara Falls](16065) into Lake Ontario; and then through the [Saint Lawrence River](702) to the [Atlantic Ocean](1936). Water also drains from the [Chicago River](374802) on the south.
Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called _inland lakes_.
Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.
The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a [storm](31979) causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake. A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.
## Ecological threats
The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, [overfishing](344042) caused a decline in lake [trout](18972). The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced [salmon](20095) as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as [lamprey](279134)s, round goby, and [zebra mussel](57846)s threaten the native fish populations.
### Invasive species
Accidentally [introduced species](258785) are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic [algae](21914), and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.
Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the [zebra mussel](57846), first discovered in 1988, and the [quagga mussel](816130) in 1989. These [mollusc](22764)s are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native [mussel](51447)s, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.
Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade. Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering [plankton](33466) from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.
### Pollution
Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as [mercury](1938). Contaminated water from [sewer](31930) overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of [pathogen](33534)ic [bacteria](10861).
|
The **Great Lakes** are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.
The five lakes are: Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.
## Geography
Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.
All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).
The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.
Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.
Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called _inland lakes_.
Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.
The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake. A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.
## Ecological threats
The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.
### Invasive species
Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.
Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel, first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989. These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.
Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade. Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.
### Pollution
Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria.
|
high
| false
| false
|
302
|
GNU Free Documentation License
|
The **GNU Free Documentation License** (**GNU FDL** or simply **GFDL**) is a [copyleft](10981) license for [open content](575) such as software. It was made by the [Free Software Foundation](128841) (FSF) for the [GNU](4995) project. It was initially created for use with software documentation, but can be applied to other types of works as well, such as [Wikipedia](27263).
As a [copyright](1586) license, the GFDL is a type of [contract](4060) between the creator of a copyrightable work (such as a [book](3686), an [encyclopedia](217) article, a [painting](11274), or a piece of [music](472)) and anyone else who might want to use it. The GFDL is considered "copyleft" because the license is meant to make it easier to use and re-use the copyrighted work, not to restrict its use.
If a copyrightable work is released under the GFDL, the creator of the work is saying that anyone else may reproduce, distribute, or modify the work, as long as they follow a set of requirements specified in the GFDL. Among the requirements of the GFDL are that any new work created from the original work is also licensed under the GFDL—that is, once something is licensed as GFDL, it will always stay licensed as GFDL, and anything which uses it also is licensed as GFDL.
The GFDL also says that in order to distribute or modify a work licensed with the GFDL, the re-user must give credit to any previous authors of the work, and include a list of changes they made to the work.
Finally, any work licensed with the GFDL must contain, somewhere, the entire text of the license. This provision has been criticized, because it is not always easy to include an entire, long license with a copyrighted work. In a book, for example, it is easy to include one extra page with the license, but if the work is something like a song, or a photograph, it is not easy.
The GFDL has other requirements that are more complicated. For example, if part of the work is labeled as an "invariant section," it cannot ever be removed or changed by someone using the work ("invariant" means "does not change").
Works licensed under the GFDL may be included in with non-GFDL-licensed works only if it is clear which parts of the work are licensed as the GFDL. For example, in a book of poetry it would be easy to label some poems as licensed under the GFDL and some not licensed under it. But it would not be easy to label if part of a song was licensed as GFDL and the rest was not, so this would not be allowed.
Any use of GFDL material which violates the terms of the GFDL is potentially [copyright infringement](9702). Infringement issues are managed through a community based approach with the approval and assistance of the Free Software Foundation.
A number of online projects use the GFDL. An online project to license its content under the GFDL is [Wikipedia](27263).
The GFDL has been criticized by many people who wish that it made it even easier for content to be re-used. Among the criticisms are that it is very hard to combine GFDL material with other copyleft licenses, that it is not always clear and easy to understand, and that some of its requirements, such as the "invariant sections", are not free at all.
## History
The GFDL was released in draft form for feedback in September 1999. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in March 2000, version 1.2 in November 2002, and version 1.3 in November 2008. The current state of the license is version 1.3.
## Conditions
Material licensed under the current version of the license can be used for any purpose, as long as the use meets certain conditions.
- All previous authors of the work must be credited.
- All changes to the work must be logged.
- All [derivative work](13908)s must be licensed under the same license.
- The full text of the license, unmodified invariant sections as defined by the author if any, and any other added warranty disclaimers (such as a general disclaimer alerting readers that the document may not be accurate for example) and copyright notices from previous versions must be maintained.
- Technical measures such as [DRM](33072) may not be used to control or obstruct distribution or editing of the document.
## Related pages
- BSD license
- [Copyleft](10981)
- [Copyright](1586)
- Free software license
- [GNU](4995)
- Non-commercial educational
- [Open content](575)
- Simple English "translation" of the GFDL text
- Share-alike
- Software licensing
## Other websites
- [FSF guide to the new drafts of documentation licenses](http://gplv3.fsf.org/doclic-dd1-guide.html)
- [GFDL official text](https://gnu.org/licenses/fdl.html)
- [Free Software and Free Manuals](https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-doc.html), essay by Richard Stallman
- [Apple's Common Documentation License](https://opensource.apple.com/cdl/) , an alternative license
## Infobox (software license)
- **name**: GNU Free Documentation License
- **image**: GFDL_Logo.svg
- **caption**: The GFDL logo
- **author**: Free Software Foundation
- **version**: 1.3
- **publisher**: Free Software Foundation, Inc.
- **date**: **Current version**:
November 3, 2008
- **debian approved**: Yes, with no invariant sections (see below)
- **free software**: Yes
- **gpl compatible**: No
- **copyleft**: Yes
|
The **GNU Free Documentation License** (**GNU FDL** or simply **GFDL**) is a copyleft license for open content such as software. It was made by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU project. It was initially created for use with software documentation, but can be applied to other types of works as well, such as Wikipedia.
As a copyright license, the GFDL is a type of contract between the creator of a copyrightable work (such as a book, an encyclopedia article, a painting, or a piece of music) and anyone else who might want to use it. The GFDL is considered "copyleft" because the license is meant to make it easier to use and re-use the copyrighted work, not to restrict its use.
If a copyrightable work is released under the GFDL, the creator of the work is saying that anyone else may reproduce, distribute, or modify the work, as long as they follow a set of requirements specified in the GFDL. Among the requirements of the GFDL are that any new work created from the original work is also licensed under the GFDL—that is, once something is licensed as GFDL, it will always stay licensed as GFDL, and anything which uses it also is licensed as GFDL.
The GFDL also says that in order to distribute or modify a work licensed with the GFDL, the re-user must give credit to any previous authors of the work, and include a list of changes they made to the work.
Finally, any work licensed with the GFDL must contain, somewhere, the entire text of the license. This provision has been criticized, because it is not always easy to include an entire, long license with a copyrighted work. In a book, for example, it is easy to include one extra page with the license, but if the work is something like a song, or a photograph, it is not easy.
The GFDL has other requirements that are more complicated. For example, if part of the work is labeled as an "invariant section," it cannot ever be removed or changed by someone using the work ("invariant" means "does not change").
Works licensed under the GFDL may be included in with non-GFDL-licensed works only if it is clear which parts of the work are licensed as the GFDL. For example, in a book of poetry it would be easy to label some poems as licensed under the GFDL and some not licensed under it. But it would not be easy to label if part of a song was licensed as GFDL and the rest was not, so this would not be allowed.
Any use of GFDL material which violates the terms of the GFDL is potentially copyright infringement. Infringement issues are managed through a community based approach with the approval and assistance of the Free Software Foundation.
A number of online projects use the GFDL. An online project to license its content under the GFDL is Wikipedia.
The GFDL has been criticized by many people who wish that it made it even easier for content to be re-used. Among the criticisms are that it is very hard to combine GFDL material with other copyleft licenses, that it is not always clear and easy to understand, and that some of its requirements, such as the "invariant sections", are not free at all.
## History
The GFDL was released in draft form for feedback in September 1999. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in March 2000, version 1.2 in November 2002, and version 1.3 in November 2008. The current state of the license is version 1.3.
## Conditions
Material licensed under the current version of the license can be used for any purpose, as long as the use meets certain conditions.
- All previous authors of the work must be credited.
- All changes to the work must be logged.
- All derivative works must be licensed under the same license.
- The full text of the license, unmodified invariant sections as defined by the author if any, and any other added warranty disclaimers (such as a general disclaimer alerting readers that the document may not be accurate for example) and copyright notices from previous versions must be maintained.
- Technical measures such as DRM may not be used to control or obstruct distribution or editing of the document.
## Related pages
- BSD license
- Copyleft
- Copyright
- Free software license
- GNU
- Non-commercial educational
- Open content
- Simple English "translation" of the GFDL text
- Share-alike
- Software licensing
## Other websites
- FSF guide to the new drafts of documentation licenses
- GFDL official text
- Free Software and Free Manuals, essay by Richard Stallman
- Apple's Common Documentation License , an alternative license
## Infobox (software license)
- **name**: GNU Free Documentation License
- **image**: GFDL_Logo.svg
- **caption**: The GFDL logo
- **author**: Free Software Foundation
- **version**: 1.3
- **publisher**: Free Software Foundation, Inc.
- **date**: **Current version**:
November 3, 2008
- **debian approved**: Yes, with no invariant sections (see below)
- **free software**: Yes
- **gpl compatible**: No
- **copyleft**: Yes
|
medium
| false
| false
|
304
|
Glass
|
**Glass** is a hard [material](4363) that can be made in many [shape](7075)s. It is usually [transparent](41268), but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass.
Glass used to make [window](928)s and [bottle](90)s is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% [silicon dioxide](65835) (SiO<sub>2</sub>), [sodium oxide](1132943) (Na<sub>2</sub>O) from [sodium carbonate](260632) (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>), [calcium oxide, also called lime](258198) (CaO), and several minor additives.
By changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of [cobalt oxide](263177).
Crystal glass is made by adding [lead](258363) and [zinc oxide](265535)s. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand:
- " 'Cut glass' is glass that has been decorated entirely by hand by use of rotating wheels. Cuts are made in an otherwise completely smooth surface of the glass by workers holding and moving the piece against various sized metal or stone wheels".
Because glass is used to make [lenses](391998), the word "glasses" often means [eyeglasses](9675).
The myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200–300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window.
Glass can be [recycled](30844) over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand.
## Other websites
- [Corning Museum of Glass](http://www.cmog.org/)
- [A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world](http://www.worldartglass.com/index.asp)
- [Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass](http://venixe.com/en/glass-working-descriptions/description-of-the-art-of-murano-glass-furnace-and-mol.html)
- [Informative website about the glass industry](http://www.glassonweb.com)
- [Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass](http://1st.glassman.com/articles/glasscolouring.html)
- [Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass)](http://www.glassfacts.info)
|
**Glass** is a hard material that can be made in many shapes. It is usually transparent, but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass.
Glass used to make windows and bottles is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silicon dioxide (SiO<sub>2</sub>), sodium oxide (Na<sub>2</sub>O) from sodium carbonate (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.
By changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of cobalt oxide.
Crystal glass is made by adding lead and zinc oxides. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand:
- " 'Cut glass' is glass that has been decorated entirely by hand by use of rotating wheels. Cuts are made in an otherwise completely smooth surface of the glass by workers holding and moving the piece against various sized metal or stone wheels".
Because glass is used to make lenses, the word "glasses" often means eyeglasses.
The myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200–300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window.
Glass can be recycled over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand.
## Other websites
- Corning Museum of Glass
- A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world
- Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass
- Informative website about the glass industry
- Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass
- Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass)
|
unknown
| false
| false
|
305
|
God
|
**God** is a being or spirit worshipped as a [deity](20464). God is considered to be the creator of the [universe](858) in some religions. Theists believe that God created everything that exists and has ever existed. Some theists think God is [immortal](59558) (cannot die) and has power without limits. [Deism](33426) is the belief that God exists, but God does not very often change or never changes things in the [universe](858). [Pantheism](48927) is the belief that the universe _is_ God, while [atheism](5976) is the belief that there are no deities. [Agnostics](14984) think we cannot know for sure whether God or gods exist, but still might (or might not) believe at least one deity exists. People who believe that the word "_God_" should be defined before taking a [theological](2120) position are [ignostic](379441).
In some religions, there is only one deity, God. This is called [monotheism](12437). Some monotheistic religions are the Abrahamic religions ([Christianity](219595), [Judaism](219593), and [Islam](219592)), the [Bahá'í Faith](18576), and [Sikhism](21592). In other religions there are many [gods](20464). This is [polytheism](12438). Some polytheistic religions are [Hinduism](5961), [Shinto](4480), [Taoism](23663), [paganism](21132), [Wicca](18118) and some variants of [Buddhism](3496). Some say that there is one God who can come in many forms, or that there is one God that is more powerful than the other gods.
In [philosophy](590) and [theology](2120), people normally write about a God that has a [personality](428179) but no [body](4361) and is everywhere at once; that God made the world and time and is separate from the world; that no-one made God; that God knows everything and has all power; that God is both free and [good](1233107); and that God is perfect and the start of all [morality](49279).
There are different names for God in different religions. Some examples are [Yahweh](95993), Elohim in [Judaism](219593) and [Christianity](219595), [Allah](17263) in [Islam](219592), Baha in [Bahá'í Faith](18576), and [Ahura Mazda](281397) in Zoroastrianism.
In English, people may write the words "god" and "gods" in lowercase letters. People that believe in only one god (monotheists) like to write _God_ with a capital letter. Some people that believe in more than one god (polytheists) also like to use capital letters when writing about their gods. Most people that believe in God or gods do not believe in the gods of other religions.
## Does God exist?
Many people have asked themselves if God exists. Philosophers, theologians, and others have tried to prove that it exists. Others have tried to disprove the [hypothesis](61817). In [philosophical](590) terminology, such arguments are about the [epistemology](7253) of the [ontology](113190) of God. The debate exists mainly in philosophy, because science does not address whether or not [supernatural](752) things exist.
There are many philosophical issues with the existence of God. Some definitions of God are not specific. Arguments for the existence of God typically include [metaphysical](12758), [empirical](134481), [inductive](107869), and subjective types. Some theories try to explain order and complexity in the [world](6369) without [evolution](8740) or [scientific method](3280). Arguments against the existence of God typically include [empirical](134481), [deductive](107867), and [inductive](107869) arguments. Conclusions sometimes include: "God does not exist" ([strong atheism](5976)); "God almost certainly does not exist" (_de facto_ [atheism](5976)); "no one knows whether God exists" ([agnosticism](14984)); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" ([deism](33426) or [theism](30983)); and "God exists and this can be proven" (theism). There are many variations on these positions, and sometimes different names for some of them. For example, the position "God exists and this can be proven" is sometimes called "gnostic theism" or "strong theism".
## Believing in God
By the year 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population were part of one of the three main Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% [Islam](219592), less than 1% [Judaism](219593)), 6% with [Buddhism](3496), 13% with [Hinduism](5961), 6% with [traditional Chinese religion](328605), 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve God or gods. Some religions do not believe in a god or do not include the concept of gods.
## God in the Abrahamic religions
[Abrahamic religions](43) are very popular monotheistic ones. Well-known Abrahamic religions include [Judaism](219593), [Christianity](219595), and [Islam](219592). Monotheistic means the people in these religions believe there is only one God. The name of God is usually not allowed to be said in [Judaism](219593), but some Jews today call him [YHWH](91884) (Yahweh) or Jehovah. Muslims say the word [Allah](17263), which is the [Arabic](8522) word for "God".
Believers in the Abrahamic religions (except Islamic believers) believe that God has created human beings in his image, but this idea is not easily understood by humankind. One artistic idea is that of an wise elder man in use since the [Renaissance](25297).
### God in Christianity
The [Christian](170) [Bible](2866) talks about God in different ways. Within Christian canon the [Old Testament](11272) talks about "God the Father", whilst the Gospels in the [New Testament](11265) are about [Jesus](219585), or "God the Son". Many Christians believe that Jesus was God's [incarnation](144696) on Earth. Christians consider the [Holy Spirit](17470) to be God as well, the third person of God.
In the [New Testament](11265), there are three beings who are said to be God in different forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (also known as the Holy Ghost). This is called the [Trinity](29460). Although the word "Trinity" is not in the Bible, the word used for God in chapter one of Genesis is actually [plural](2029), and the phrase "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit' is used in the [New Testament](11265), (e.g. [Matthew](100099) 28:19). Another word that Christians believe has exactly the same meaning as "Trinity" is the word "Godhead", which _is_ in the Bible.
Christians believe that [God incarnated](152948) in a human body, through the normal birth process, normally growing up into a man named [Jesus](219585) or (Yeshua), coming to Earth specifically to give every person an opportunity of [salvation](391274) from their own evil, called [sin](3639). The effect of personal evil far transcends the repercussions humans cause to one another in the world, but affects one's relationship with God the Father, and that aspect of the self cannot be addressed through one's own self-improvement efforts, but requires God to intervene in order to set one right. When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same.
Jesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from [fallen angel](463786)s, which are within various false religions. After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before [the Fall](65563).
## God in Eastern religions
In [Hinduism](5961), there is only one God, named [Brahman](31829), but Brahman is said to have taken on many different [incarnation](144696)s. Some of these are [Rama](29613), [Krishna](310557), [Buddha](3555), [Shiva](24886), [Kali](31905), [Parvati](31840), and [Durga](29822). To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways.
Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called [Advaita Vedanta](24517), which is the Hindu term for [Monism](144697).
Religions like [Buddhism](3496) and [Confucianism](14829) involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all.
In [Shinto](4480), there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of [deities](20464) called _[kami](2832)_, they are the [spirit](753) and essence of all [nature](547) things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, [tree](847)s and [poetry](3886), for example. As Shinto is a [polytheistic](12438) religion, it is usually believed that there are _eight-million [Kami](2832)_ (八百万の神 yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the [Japanese language](3937), the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean [infinity](395).
## God in Western philosophy
Philosophers can talk about God or god; sometimes they talk about a specific god, but other times they are just talking about the idea of god.
One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the [Greek](13444) [Aristotle](4494), who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else.
The idea of an "all powerful" God raises some interesting questions. One of them is called the [God paradox](4841). It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it. The question considers if a god "who can do anything" could do two things that are mutually contradictory.
There have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with [logic](4069). [Blaise Pascal](17654) said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't. This argument is known as [Pascal's wager](196502) today. Note that Blaise Pascal was a [mathematician](14844), and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of [expected value](424842) in [statistics](789). Other attempts known as the [ontological argument](577441), the [cosmological argument](264673), and teleological argument today. [Kurt Gödel](25857) formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s.
## Related pages
- [Cosmogony](705054)
- [Deity](20464)
- [Thomas Aquinas](90780)
- [Immanuel Kant](4955)
|
**God** is a being or spirit worshipped as a deity. God is considered to be the creator of the universe in some religions. Theists believe that God created everything that exists and has ever existed. Some theists think God is immortal (cannot die) and has power without limits. Deism is the belief that God exists, but God does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe _is_ God, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities. Agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether God or gods exist, but still might (or might not) believe at least one deity exists. People who believe that the word "_God_" should be defined before taking a theological position are ignostic.
In some religions, there is only one deity, God. This is called monotheism. Some monotheistic religions are the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), the Bahá'í Faith, and Sikhism. In other religions there are many gods. This is polytheism. Some polytheistic religions are Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, paganism, Wicca and some variants of Buddhism. Some say that there is one God who can come in many forms, or that there is one God that is more powerful than the other gods.
In philosophy and theology, people normally write about a God that has a personality but no body and is everywhere at once; that God made the world and time and is separate from the world; that no-one made God; that God knows everything and has all power; that God is both free and good; and that God is perfect and the start of all morality.
There are different names for God in different religions. Some examples are Yahweh, Elohim in Judaism and Christianity, Allah in Islam, Baha in Bahá'í Faith, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.
In English, people may write the words "god" and "gods" in lowercase letters. People that believe in only one god (monotheists) like to write _God_ with a capital letter. Some people that believe in more than one god (polytheists) also like to use capital letters when writing about their gods. Most people that believe in God or gods do not believe in the gods of other religions.
## Does God exist?
Many people have asked themselves if God exists. Philosophers, theologians, and others have tried to prove that it exists. Others have tried to disprove the hypothesis. In philosophical terminology, such arguments are about the epistemology of the ontology of God. The debate exists mainly in philosophy, because science does not address whether or not supernatural things exist.
There are many philosophical issues with the existence of God. Some definitions of God are not specific. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types. Some theories try to explain order and complexity in the world without evolution or scientific method. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive arguments. Conclusions sometimes include: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" (_de facto_ atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (deism or theism); and "God exists and this can be proven" (theism). There are many variations on these positions, and sometimes different names for some of them. For example, the position "God exists and this can be proven" is sometimes called "gnostic theism" or "strong theism".
## Believing in God
By the year 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population were part of one of the three main Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, less than 1% Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6% with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve God or gods. Some religions do not believe in a god or do not include the concept of gods.
## God in the Abrahamic religions
Abrahamic religions are very popular monotheistic ones. Well-known Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Monotheistic means the people in these religions believe there is only one God. The name of God is usually not allowed to be said in Judaism, but some Jews today call him YHWH (Yahweh) or Jehovah. Muslims say the word Allah, which is the Arabic word for "God".
Believers in the Abrahamic religions (except Islamic believers) believe that God has created human beings in his image, but this idea is not easily understood by humankind. One artistic idea is that of an wise elder man in use since the Renaissance.
### God in Christianity
The Christian Bible talks about God in different ways. Within Christian canon the Old Testament talks about "God the Father", whilst the Gospels in the New Testament are about Jesus, or "God the Son". Many Christians believe that Jesus was God's incarnation on Earth. Christians consider the Holy Spirit to be God as well, the third person of God.
In the New Testament, there are three beings who are said to be God in different forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (also known as the Holy Ghost). This is called the Trinity. Although the word "Trinity" is not in the Bible, the word used for God in chapter one of Genesis is actually plural, and the phrase "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit' is used in the New Testament, (e.g. Matthew 28:19). Another word that Christians believe has exactly the same meaning as "Trinity" is the word "Godhead", which _is_ in the Bible.
Christians believe that God incarnated in a human body, through the normal birth process, normally growing up into a man named Jesus or (Yeshua), coming to Earth specifically to give every person an opportunity of salvation from their own evil, called sin. The effect of personal evil far transcends the repercussions humans cause to one another in the world, but affects one's relationship with God the Father, and that aspect of the self cannot be addressed through one's own self-improvement efforts, but requires God to intervene in order to set one right. When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same.
Jesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from fallen angels, which are within various false religions. After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before the Fall.
## God in Eastern religions
In Hinduism, there is only one God, named Brahman, but Brahman is said to have taken on many different incarnations. Some of these are Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Shiva, Kali, Parvati, and Durga. To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways.
Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called Advaita Vedanta, which is the Hindu term for Monism.
Religions like Buddhism and Confucianism involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all.
In Shinto, there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of deities called _kami_, they are the spirit and essence of all nature things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, trees and poetry, for example. As Shinto is a polytheistic religion, it is usually believed that there are _eight-million Kami_ (八百万の神 yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the Japanese language, the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean infinity.
## God in Western philosophy
Philosophers can talk about God or god; sometimes they talk about a specific god, but other times they are just talking about the idea of god.
One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the Greek Aristotle, who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else.
The idea of an "all powerful" God raises some interesting questions. One of them is called the God paradox. It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it. The question considers if a god "who can do anything" could do two things that are mutually contradictory.
There have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with logic. Blaise Pascal said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't. This argument is known as Pascal's wager today. Note that Blaise Pascal was a mathematician, and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of expected value in statistics. Other attempts known as the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and teleological argument today. Kurt Gödel formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s.
## Related pages
- Cosmogony
- Deity
- Thomas Aquinas
- Immanuel Kant
|
high
| false
| false
|
306
|
Ghost
|
In folklore a **ghost**, **phantom**, or **spirit**, is thought to be the [soul](805) of a dead person, usually one who tries to scare alive people. [Scientist](748)s say that there is no proof that ghosts are real, but many people believe that they are. There are a lot of stories about ghosts in [book](3686)s and [movie](3486)s. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead.
The ghost may stay on [Earth](219) because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular place, for example an abandoned [house](4900) or a place that existed hundreds of years ago.
Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave. Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts. People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called [mediums](130006).
There can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones. There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it.
Many people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of [cold](12570) and a [light](3987) or a misty [cloud](4055), but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in [human](502310) form. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems. People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force.
Ghosts are said to form right after people die, or even [centuries](3261) later. Many people make up stories or urban [legend](10010)s. Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special [technology](15232) such as heat [sensor](131145)s. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts. They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting.
Stories of ghosts can be found all over the world. Chinese philosopher [Confucius](13215) said "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them."
The most feared spirit in Thailand is [Phi Tai Hong](655581), the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death. The Koran discusses spirits known as _jinn_. In Europe there is the recurring fear of "returning" or _revenant_ deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian , the Romanian , the Serbian _[vampir](9505)_, the Greek _vrykolakas_ among others.
## The Bible
There’s a story in the [Second Book of Samuel](118261) where [Samuel](1117637) appears to [Saul](118080) after Samuel is dead.
## Modern times
In modern days, ghosts have become common features in [horror](67069) and [fantasy](28906) stories. Their appearance can take the form of the person they once were or sometimes they are depicted wearing white cloaks over their body and face.
At [Halloween](7460), many people dress up as ghosts.
## Related pages
- [Spiritual séance](283015)
## Other websites
- [Ghost and the musical traditions within the County of Nice, France](http://mtcn.free.fr/mtcn-traditional-music-midi-popular-song.php#fant_pel)
- [Ghostsandstories.com](http://www.ghostsandstories.com) Ghost stories and haunted places.
- [Your Ghost Stories](http://www.yourghoststories.com/) People sharing their ghost experiences.
|
In folklore a **ghost**, **phantom**, or **spirit**, is thought to be the soul of a dead person, usually one who tries to scare alive people. Scientists say that there is no proof that ghosts are real, but many people believe that they are. There are a lot of stories about ghosts in books and movies. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead.
The ghost may stay on Earth because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular place, for example an abandoned house or a place that existed hundreds of years ago.
Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave. Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts. People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called mediums.
There can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones. There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it.
Many people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems. People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force.
Ghosts are said to form right after people die, or even centuries later. Many people make up stories or urban legends. Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts. They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting.
Stories of ghosts can be found all over the world. Chinese philosopher Confucius said "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them."
The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death. The Koran discusses spirits known as _jinn_. In Europe there is the recurring fear of "returning" or _revenant_ deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian , the Romanian , the Serbian _vampir_, the Greek _vrykolakas_ among others.
## The Bible
There’s a story in the Second Book of Samuel where Samuel appears to Saul after Samuel is dead.
## Modern times
In modern days, ghosts have become common features in horror and fantasy stories. Their appearance can take the form of the person they once were or sometimes they are depicted wearing white cloaks over their body and face.
At Halloween, many people dress up as ghosts.
## Related pages
- Spiritual séance
## Other websites
- Ghost and the musical traditions within the County of Nice, France
- Ghostsandstories.com Ghost stories and haunted places.
- Your Ghost Stories People sharing their ghost experiences.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
308
|
Green
|
**Green** is a [color](2083) between the [yellow](3035) and [blue](3697) colors in the [rainbow](7790). Green is a [primary color](19759) (a color that can be mixed with another color) of [light](3987). The others are [red](660) and [blue](3697).
Green and blue are next to each other on the spectrum, and there are languages which do not distinguish between them. Examples are old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese.
Green [paint](26365) can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue tempera paint together.
Green light, like all light, is quanta—composed of [photon](3661)s. The [wavelength](23389) of green light is about 550 nanometers (one-billionth of a meter).
Most [leaves](16390) of growing [plant](628)s, such as [tree](847)s and [bush](21014)es, are green. This is because there is a chemical in leaves, called [chlorophyll](19828), which is colored green.
See color vision for more on the significance of green.
## Meaning of green
- Green is used as a color associated with [jealousy](21083). The phrase "green-eyed monster" means a jealous person.
- The color green is the color of nature. Having a "green thumb" means that you're good at gardening.
- Green is a color associated with poison. [Paris green](276116) is a highly toxic [chemical compound](6101).
- Green is a color of the Islamic religion. Search the shade "Islamic Green" below.
- Green is also the color of sickness. The phrase "green around the gills" is an expression implying that the person is nauseated.
## Comparison of greens
|Name|width=100|Color|HEX Code|Red|Green|Blue|Hue|Sat|Lum|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Green(Ao English) Hulk|style = "background-color: #008000; color: #000000"|RGB 0,128,0|#008000|0|128|0|120°|100%|100%|
|[Spring Green](133587)(Guppie Green)|style = "background-color: #00ff7f; color: #000000"|RGB 0,255,127|#00FF7F|0|255|128|150°|100%|100%|
|Electric green(Bright Green) Lime(Web)/Hourbour|style = "background-color: #00ff00;color: #ffffff"|RGB 0,255,0|#00FF00|0|255|0|120°|100%|50%|
|Sea Green/Lake Green|style = "background-color: #2b8e57; color: #ffffff"|RGB 46,139,87|#2B8E57|46|139|87|146°|67%|54%|
## Tones of green color comparison chart
**Green** is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by range with a [wavelength](23389) of roughly 570-520 [nm](34224).
|style = "background-color: #f5fffa;"|Mint Cream (web color) (Hex: #F5FFFA) (RGB: 245, 255, 250)|
| --- | --- |
|style = "background-color: #f0fff0;"|Honeydew (web color) (Hex: #F0FFF0) (RGB:240, 255, 240)|
|style = "background-color: #e6f8f3;"|Off Green (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E6F8F3) (RGB: 230, 248, 243)|
|style = "background-color: #dbfff8;"|Frosted Mint (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #DBFFF8) (RGB: 219, 255, 248)|
|style = "background-color: #7fffd4;"|Tipler (web color) (Hex:#7FFFD4) (RGB: 127, 255, 212)|
|style = "background-color: #98fb98;"|Pale green (web color) (Hex: #98FB98) (RGB: 152, 251, 152)|
|style = "background-color: #90ee90;"|Light Green (web color) (Hex: #90EE90) (RGB: 144, 238, 144)|
|style = "background-color: #ade6c4;"|Padua (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #ADE6C4) (RGB: 173, 230, 196)|
|style = "background-color: #ecebbd;"|Pale Spring Bud (Crayola "Spring Green") (Hex: #ECEBBD) (RGB: 236, 235, 189)|
|style = "background-color: #f1e788;"|Pale Green-Yellow (Crayola Green-Yellow) (Hex: #F1E788) (RGB: 242, 231, 136)|
|style="background-color: #ecf245;"|Starship (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E3DD39) (RGB: 227, 221, 57)|
|style = "background-color: #dfff00;"|Chartreuse Yellow (traditional Chartreuse) (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #DFFF00) (RGB: 223, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #d1e231;"|Pear (Hex: #D1E231) (RGB: 209, 226, 49)|
|style = "background-color: #cae00d;"|Bitter Lemon (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #CAE00D) (RGB: 202, 224, 13)|
|style = "background-color: #C9DC87;"|Medium Spring Bud (Spring Bud (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #C9DC87) (RGB: 201, 220, 135)|
|style = "background-color: #d1e189;"|Lime Pulp (Hex: #D1E189) (RGB: 200, 225, 137)|
|style = "background-color: #ccff00;"|Electric Lime (Crayola) (Hex: #CCFF00) (RGB: 204, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #bfff00;"|[Lime](51650) (Maerz & Paul) Bitter Lime (Hex: #BFFF00) (RGB: 191, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #adff2f;"|Green-Yellow (web color) (Hex: #ADFF2F) (RGB: 173, 255, 47)|
|style = "background-color: #a7fc00;"|Spring Bud (Spring Green (Maerz & Paul)) (Hex: #A7FC00) (RGB: 167, 252, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #bdda57;"|June Bud (ISCC-NBS) (Growth Green (Plochere))(Hex: #BDDA57) (RGB: 189, 218, 87)|
|style = "background-color: #c0d8b6;"|Pixie Green (Xona.com Color List)(Hex: #C0D8B6) (RGB: 192, 216, 182)|
|style = "background-color: #d0f0c0;"|Tea Green (Hex: #D0F0C0) (RGB: 208, 240, 192)|
|style = "background-color: #cbe3d7;"|Edgewater (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #CBE3D7) (RGB: 200, 227, 215)|
|style = "background-color: #b4cfd3;"|Jungle Mist (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #B4CFD3) (RGB: 180, 207, 211)|
|style = "background-color: #ace1af;"|Celadon (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #ACE1AF) (RGB:172, 225, 175)|
|style = "background-color: #addfad;"|Light Moss Green (Moss Green www.99colors.net) (Hex: #ADDFAD) (RGB:173, 223, 173)|
|style = "background-color: #aaf0d1;"|Magic Mint (Crayola) (Hex: #AAF0D1) (RGB:170, 240, 209)|
|style = "background-color: #98ff98;"|Mint Green (Hex: #98FF98) (RGB:152, 255, 152)|
|style="background-color: #66ff66; "|Ultra Green (Crayola: Screamin’ Green) (Hex: #66FF66) (RGB: 102, 255, 102)|
|style = "background-color: #00ff3f;"|[Erin](232999) (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #00FF3F) (RGB: 0, 255, 63)|
|style = "background-color: #00ff7f;"|[Spring green](133587) (web color) (Hex: #00FF7F) (RGB: 0, 255, 127)|
|style = "background-color: #00fa9a;"|Medium Spring Green (web color) (Hex: #00FA9A) (RGB: 0, 250, 154)|
|style = "background-color: #7cfc00;"|Lawn Green (web color) (Hex: #7CFC00) (RGB: 124, 252, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #7fff00;"|Chartreuse Green (web color Chartreuse) (Matcha) (Hex: #7FFF00) (RGB: 127, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #66ff00;"|Bright Green (Hex: #66FF00) (RGB: 102, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #3fff00;"|Harlequin (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #3FFF00) (RGB: 63, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #00ff00;"|Electric green / (Bright Green) (web color "Lime") (Hex: #00FF00) (RGB: 0, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #39ff14;"|Neon Green (www.layoutspace.com) (Hex: #39FF14) (RGB: 57, 255, 20)|
|style = "background-color: #77dd77;"|Pastel Green (Hex: #77DD77) (RGB: 119, 221, 119)|
|style = "background-color: #6ca66c;"|Green-gray (Hex: #6CA66C) (RGB: 108, 166, 108)|
|style = "background-color: #0bda51;"|Malachite (Maer & Paul) (Hex: #0BDA51) (RGB: 11, 218, 81)|
|style = "background-color: #32cd32;"|Lime Green (web color) (Hex: #32CD32) (RGB: 50, 205, 50)|
|style = "background-color: #03C03C;"|Dark Pastel Green (Hex: #03C03C) (RGB: 3, 192, 60)|
|style = "background-color: #32b141;"|Classic Green (Pantone TPX 16-6340) (Hex: #32B141) (RGB: 50, 177, 65)|
|style = "background-color: #4cbb17;"|Kelly Green (Hex: #4CBB17) (RGB: 76, 187, 23)|
|style = "background-color: #71cc51;"|Green Flash (Pantone TPX 15-0146) (Hex: #71CC51) (RGB: 113, 204, 81)|
|style = "background-color: #74c365;"|Mantis (Praying Mantis) (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #74C365) (RGB: 116, 195, 101)|
|style = "background-color: #50c878;"|Emerald Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #50C878) (RGB: 80, 200, 120)|
|style = "background-color: #66ddaa;"|Medium Aquamarine (web color) (Hex: #66DDAA) (RGB:102, 205, 170)|
|style = "background-color: #00cc99;"|Caribbean Green (Crayola) (Hex: #00CC99) (RGB: 0, 204, 153)|
|style = "background-color: #99cc66;"|Dull Green (Hex: #99CC66) (RGB: 153, 204, 102)|
|style = "background-color: #20b2aa;"|Light Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #20B2AA) (RGB: 32, 178, 170)|
|style = "background-color: #3cb371;"|Medium Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #3CB371) (RGB: 60, 179, 113)|
|style = "background-color: #00a550;"|Pigment Green (CMYK) (Hex: #00A550) (RGB: 0, 165, 80)|
|style = "background-color: #00ab66;"|GO Green (GO Transit (Toronto)) (Hex: #00AB66) (RGB: 0, 171, 102)|
|style = "background-color: #00a86b;"|Jade Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #00A86B) (RGB: 0, 168, 107)|
|style = "background-color: #009f6b;"|Green (NCS) (Hex: #009F6B) (RGB: 0, 159, 107)|
|style = "background-color: #1cac78;"|Green (Crayola) (Hex: #1CAC78) (RGB: 28, 172, 120)|
|style = "background-color: #00a877;"|Green (Munsell) (Munsell 5G Green) (Hex: #00A877) (RGB: 0, 168, 119)|
|style = "background-color: #3eb489;"|Mint (Mint Leaf (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #3EB489) (RGB: 62, 180, 137)|
|style = "background-color: #29ab87;"|Jungle Green (Crayola) (Hex: #29AB87) (RGB: 41, 171, 135)|
|style = "background-color: #00ad83;"|Green (Pantone) (Green Grey) (Hex: #00AD83) (RGB: 0, 173, 131)|
|style = "background-color: #00a693;"|Persian Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #00A693) (RGB: 0, 166, 147)|
|style = "background-color: #1ab385;"|Mountain Meadow (Crayola) (Hex: #1AB385) (RGB: 26, 179, 133)|
|style = "background-color: #009b7d;"|Spanish Viridian (_Verde Verones_ Gallego & Sanz) (Hex: #009B7D) (RGB: 0, 155, 125)|
|style = "background-color: #009e60;"|Shamrock Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #009E60) (RGB: 0, 158, 96)|
|style = "background-color: #00993a;"|Christmas Green (Liquitex Soft Body Decorative colors) (Hex: #00993A) (RGB: 0, 153, 58)|
|style = "background-color: #009000;"|Islamic Green (Islamic flag) (Hex: #009000) (RGB: 0, 144, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #138808;"|India Green (Flag of India) (Hex: #138808) (RGB: 19, 136, 8)|
|style = "background-color: #2e8b57;"|Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #2E8B57) (RGB: 46, 139, 87)|
|style = "background-color: #228b22;"|Forest Green (web color) (Hex: #228B22) (RGB:34, 139, 34)|
|style = "background-color: #7ba05b;"|Asparagus (Crayola) (Hex: #7BA05B) (RGB: 123, 160, 91)|
|style = "background-color: #7da98d;"|Bay Leaf (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #7DA98D) (RGB: 125, 169, 141)|
|style = "background-color: #c0db50;"|Leaf Green (Hex: #C0DB50) (RGB: 192, 219, 80)|
|style = "background-color: #8fbc8f;"|Dark Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #8FBC8F) (RGB: 143, 188, 143)|
|style = "background-color: #9ab973;"|Olivine (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #9AB973) (RGB: 154, 185, 115)|
|style = "background-color: #93c572;"|Pistachio (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #93C572) (RGB: 147, 197, 146)|
|style = "background-color: #9acd32;"|Yellow-Green (web color) (Hex: #9ACD32) (RGB: 154, 205, 50)|
|style = "background-color: #a1c50a;"|Citrus (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #A1C50A) (RGB: 161, 197, 10)|
|style = "background-color: #8db600;"|Apple Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #8DB600) (RGB: 141, 182, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #8a9a5b;"|Moss Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #8A9A5B) (RGB:138, 154, 91)|
|style = "background-color: #78866b;"|Camouflage Green (Hex: #78866B) (RGB: 120, 134, 107)|
|style = "background-color: #679267;"|Russian Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #679267) (RGB: 103, 146, 103)|
|style = "background-color: #6b8e23;"|Olive Drab (web color) (Hex: #6B8E23) (RGB: 107, 142, 35)|
|style = "background-color: #808000;"|Olive (web color) (Hex: #808000) (RGB: 128, 128, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #44944a;"|Medium Harlequin (Harlequin (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #44944A) (RGB: 68, 148, 74)|
|style = "background-color: #3b7e00; color: #ffffff"|Napier Green (Original British Racing Green) (Hex: #3B7E00) (RGB: 59, 126, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #556b2f; color:#ffffff"|Dark Olive Green (web color Dark Chartreuse Green) (Hex: #556B2F) (RGB: 85, 107, 47)|
|style = "background-color: #507d2a; color:#ffffff"|Sap Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #507D2A) (RGB: 80, 125, 42)|
|style = "background-color: #4f7942; color:#ffffff"|Fern Green (Crayola) (Hex: #4F7942) (RGB: 79, 121, 66)|
|style = "background-color: #008000; color: #ffffff "|Green (Ao English) (HTML/CSS “Green”) (Grass) (Hex: #008000) (RGB: 0, 128, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #008080; color:#ffffff"|Teal (web color) (Hex: #008080) (RGB: 0, 128, 128)|
|style = "background-color: #0095b6; color:#ffffff"|Blue-Green (Crayola) (Hex: #0095B6) (RGB: 0, 149, 182)|
|style = "background-color: #009698; color: #ffffff "|Viridian Green (Pantone TPX 17-5126) (Hex: #009698) (RGB: 0, 150,152)|
|style = "background-color: #01796f; color: #ffffff "|Pine Green (Crayola) (Hex: #01796F) (RGB:1, 121, 111)|
|style = "background-color: #007474; color: #ffffff "|Skobeloff (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #007474) (RGB: 0, 122, 116)|
|style = "background-color: #317873; color: #ffffff "|Myrtle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #317873) (RGB: 49, 120, 115)|
|style = "background-color: #2b6963; color: #ffffff "|Antique Green (Pantone TPX 18-5418) (Hex: #2B6963) (RGB: 43, 105, 99)|
|style = "background-color: #40826d; color: #ffffff "|Viridian (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #40826D) (RGB:64, 130, 109)|
|style = "background-color: #3b7a57; color: #ffffff"|Amazon (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #3B7A57) (RGB: 59, 122, 87)|
|style = "background-color: #00755e; color: #ffffff"|Tropical Rainforest (Crayola) (Hex: #00755E) (RGB: 0, 117, 94)|
|style = "background-color: #177245; color: #ffffff "|Dark Spring Green (web color) (Hex: #177245) (RGB: 23, 114, 69)|
|style = "background-color: #006a4e; color: #ffffff "|Bottle Green (Bangladesh Green) (Flag of Bangladesh) (Hex: #006A4E) (RGB: 0, 106, 78)|
|style = "background-color: #006600; color: #ffffff "|Pakistan Green (Flag of Pakistan) (Hex: #006600) (RGB: 0, 102, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #037949; color: #ffffff "|Medium Green (Hex: #037949) (RGB: 3, 121, 73)|
|style = "background-color: #006400; color: #ffffff "|Dark Green (web color) (Hex: #006400) (RGB: 0, 100, 0)|
|style="background-color: #056608; color: #ffffff "|Deep Green (Crayola: Green) (Hex: #056608) (RGB: 5, 102, 8)|
|style = "background-color: #306030; color:#ffffff"|Mughal Green (Flag of Mughal Empire) (Hex: #306030) (RGB: 48, 96, 98)|
|style = "background-color: #355e3b; color:#ffffff"|Hunter Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #355E3B) (RGB: 53, 94, 59)|
|style = "background-color: #4d5d53; color:#ffffff"|Feldgrau (Mindjunker) (Hex: #4D5D53) (RGB: 77, 93, 83)|
|style = "background-color: #4b5320; color:#ffffff"|Army Green (Hex: #4B5320) (RGB: 75, 83, 32)|
|style = "background-color: #444c38; color:#ffffff"|Rifle Green (Pantone TPX 19-0419) (Hex: #444C38) (RGB: 68, 76, 56)|
|style = "background-color: #465945; color:#ffffff"|Gray-Asparagus (Hex: #465945) (RGB: 70, 89, 69)|
|style = "background-color: #1b4d3e; color: #ffffff "|British Racing Green (Modern) (representative sample) (Hex: #1B4D3E) (RGB: 27, 77, 62)|
|style = "background-color: #004953; color: #ffffff "|Midnight Green (Eagle Green) (Hex: #004953) (RGB: 0, 73, 83)|
|style = "background-color: #004b49; color: #ffffff"|Deep Jungle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #004B49) (RGB: 0, 75, 73)|
|style = "background-color: #354230; color: #ffffff"|Kombu Green (Pantone TPX 19-0417) (Hex: #354230) (RGB: 53, 66, 48)|
|style = "background-color: #1c352d; color: #ffffff"|Medium Jungle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #1C352D) (RGB: 28, 53, 45)|
|style = "background-color: #123524; color: #ffffff "|Phthalo Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #123524) (RGB: 18, 53, 26)|
|style = "background-color: #1a2421; color: #ffffff"|Dark Jungle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #1A2421) (RGB: 26, 36, 33)|
|style = "background-color: #1a2118; color: #ffffff "|Charleston Green (Hex: #1A2118) (RGB: 26, 33, 24)|
## Related pages
- Color vision
- [List of colors](4046)
- Chartreuse green
- [Emerald green](80780)
- [Erin](232999)
- Fruitamins
- Grape
- Gray-green
- [Harlequin green](206590)
- Kiwi green
- [Lime green](51650)
- Mint green
- [Olive green](25174)
- Parrot
- [Spring green](133587)
- Sweet Lime green
- [Viridian](52068)
## Infobox (color)
- **title**: Green
- **hex**: 008000
- **caption**: Clockwise, from top left: Spain, Spanish gold and emerald pendant; chestnut-fronted macaw; _Arnolfini Portrait_ by Jan van Eyck; a billiards table; countryside in France; a graduating class of United States Marine Corps, U.S. Marines; Lime (fruit), limes
- **wavelength**: 495570
- **frequency**: ≈575525
- **source**: X11
- **r**: 0
- **g**: 100
- **b**: 0
|
**Green** is a color between the yellow and blue colors in the rainbow. Green is a primary color (a color that can be mixed with another color) of light. The others are red and blue.
Green and blue are next to each other on the spectrum, and there are languages which do not distinguish between them. Examples are old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese.
Green paint can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue tempera paint together.
Green light, like all light, is quanta—composed of photons. The wavelength of green light is about 550 nanometers (one-billionth of a meter).
Most leaves of growing plants, such as trees and bushes, are green. This is because there is a chemical in leaves, called chlorophyll, which is colored green.
See color vision for more on the significance of green.
## Meaning of green
- Green is used as a color associated with jealousy. The phrase "green-eyed monster" means a jealous person.
- The color green is the color of nature. Having a "green thumb" means that you're good at gardening.
- Green is a color associated with poison. Paris green is a highly toxic chemical compound.
- Green is a color of the Islamic religion. Search the shade "Islamic Green" below.
- Green is also the color of sickness. The phrase "green around the gills" is an expression implying that the person is nauseated.
## Comparison of greens
|Name|width=100|Color|HEX Code|Red|Green|Blue|Hue|Sat|Lum|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Green(Ao English) Hulk|style = "background-color: #008000; color: #000000"|RGB 0,128,0|#008000|0|128|0|120°|100%|100%|
|Spring Green(Guppie Green)|style = "background-color: #00ff7f; color: #000000"|RGB 0,255,127|#00FF7F|0|255|128|150°|100%|100%|
|Electric green(Bright Green) Lime(Web)/Hourbour|style = "background-color: #00ff00;color: #ffffff"|RGB 0,255,0|#00FF00|0|255|0|120°|100%|50%|
|Sea Green/Lake Green|style = "background-color: #2b8e57; color: #ffffff"|RGB 46,139,87|#2B8E57|46|139|87|146°|67%|54%|
## Tones of green color comparison chart
**Green** is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by range with a wavelength of roughly 570-520 nm.
|style = "background-color: #f5fffa;"|Mint Cream (web color) (Hex: #F5FFFA) (RGB: 245, 255, 250)|
| --- | --- |
|style = "background-color: #f0fff0;"|Honeydew (web color) (Hex: #F0FFF0) (RGB:240, 255, 240)|
|style = "background-color: #e6f8f3;"|Off Green (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E6F8F3) (RGB: 230, 248, 243)|
|style = "background-color: #dbfff8;"|Frosted Mint (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #DBFFF8) (RGB: 219, 255, 248)|
|style = "background-color: #7fffd4;"|Tipler (web color) (Hex:#7FFFD4) (RGB: 127, 255, 212)|
|style = "background-color: #98fb98;"|Pale green (web color) (Hex: #98FB98) (RGB: 152, 251, 152)|
|style = "background-color: #90ee90;"|Light Green (web color) (Hex: #90EE90) (RGB: 144, 238, 144)|
|style = "background-color: #ade6c4;"|Padua (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #ADE6C4) (RGB: 173, 230, 196)|
|style = "background-color: #ecebbd;"|Pale Spring Bud (Crayola "Spring Green") (Hex: #ECEBBD) (RGB: 236, 235, 189)|
|style = "background-color: #f1e788;"|Pale Green-Yellow (Crayola Green-Yellow) (Hex: #F1E788) (RGB: 242, 231, 136)|
|style="background-color: #ecf245;"|Starship (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E3DD39) (RGB: 227, 221, 57)|
|style = "background-color: #dfff00;"|Chartreuse Yellow (traditional Chartreuse) (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #DFFF00) (RGB: 223, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #d1e231;"|Pear (Hex: #D1E231) (RGB: 209, 226, 49)|
|style = "background-color: #cae00d;"|Bitter Lemon (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #CAE00D) (RGB: 202, 224, 13)|
|style = "background-color: #C9DC87;"|Medium Spring Bud (Spring Bud (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #C9DC87) (RGB: 201, 220, 135)|
|style = "background-color: #d1e189;"|Lime Pulp (Hex: #D1E189) (RGB: 200, 225, 137)|
|style = "background-color: #ccff00;"|Electric Lime (Crayola) (Hex: #CCFF00) (RGB: 204, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #bfff00;"|Lime (Maerz & Paul) Bitter Lime (Hex: #BFFF00) (RGB: 191, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #adff2f;"|Green-Yellow (web color) (Hex: #ADFF2F) (RGB: 173, 255, 47)|
|style = "background-color: #a7fc00;"|Spring Bud (Spring Green (Maerz & Paul)) (Hex: #A7FC00) (RGB: 167, 252, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #bdda57;"|June Bud (ISCC-NBS) (Growth Green (Plochere))(Hex: #BDDA57) (RGB: 189, 218, 87)|
|style = "background-color: #c0d8b6;"|Pixie Green (Xona.com Color List)(Hex: #C0D8B6) (RGB: 192, 216, 182)|
|style = "background-color: #d0f0c0;"|Tea Green (Hex: #D0F0C0) (RGB: 208, 240, 192)|
|style = "background-color: #cbe3d7;"|Edgewater (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #CBE3D7) (RGB: 200, 227, 215)|
|style = "background-color: #b4cfd3;"|Jungle Mist (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #B4CFD3) (RGB: 180, 207, 211)|
|style = "background-color: #ace1af;"|Celadon (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #ACE1AF) (RGB:172, 225, 175)|
|style = "background-color: #addfad;"|Light Moss Green (Moss Green www.99colors.net) (Hex: #ADDFAD) (RGB:173, 223, 173)|
|style = "background-color: #aaf0d1;"|Magic Mint (Crayola) (Hex: #AAF0D1) (RGB:170, 240, 209)|
|style = "background-color: #98ff98;"|Mint Green (Hex: #98FF98) (RGB:152, 255, 152)|
|style="background-color: #66ff66; "|Ultra Green (Crayola: Screamin’ Green) (Hex: #66FF66) (RGB: 102, 255, 102)|
|style = "background-color: #00ff3f;"|Erin (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #00FF3F) (RGB: 0, 255, 63)|
|style = "background-color: #00ff7f;"|Spring green (web color) (Hex: #00FF7F) (RGB: 0, 255, 127)|
|style = "background-color: #00fa9a;"|Medium Spring Green (web color) (Hex: #00FA9A) (RGB: 0, 250, 154)|
|style = "background-color: #7cfc00;"|Lawn Green (web color) (Hex: #7CFC00) (RGB: 124, 252, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #7fff00;"|Chartreuse Green (web color Chartreuse) (Matcha) (Hex: #7FFF00) (RGB: 127, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #66ff00;"|Bright Green (Hex: #66FF00) (RGB: 102, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #3fff00;"|Harlequin (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #3FFF00) (RGB: 63, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #00ff00;"|Electric green / (Bright Green) (web color "Lime") (Hex: #00FF00) (RGB: 0, 255, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #39ff14;"|Neon Green (www.layoutspace.com) (Hex: #39FF14) (RGB: 57, 255, 20)|
|style = "background-color: #77dd77;"|Pastel Green (Hex: #77DD77) (RGB: 119, 221, 119)|
|style = "background-color: #6ca66c;"|Green-gray (Hex: #6CA66C) (RGB: 108, 166, 108)|
|style = "background-color: #0bda51;"|Malachite (Maer & Paul) (Hex: #0BDA51) (RGB: 11, 218, 81)|
|style = "background-color: #32cd32;"|Lime Green (web color) (Hex: #32CD32) (RGB: 50, 205, 50)|
|style = "background-color: #03C03C;"|Dark Pastel Green (Hex: #03C03C) (RGB: 3, 192, 60)|
|style = "background-color: #32b141;"|Classic Green (Pantone TPX 16-6340) (Hex: #32B141) (RGB: 50, 177, 65)|
|style = "background-color: #4cbb17;"|Kelly Green (Hex: #4CBB17) (RGB: 76, 187, 23)|
|style = "background-color: #71cc51;"|Green Flash (Pantone TPX 15-0146) (Hex: #71CC51) (RGB: 113, 204, 81)|
|style = "background-color: #74c365;"|Mantis (Praying Mantis) (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #74C365) (RGB: 116, 195, 101)|
|style = "background-color: #50c878;"|Emerald Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #50C878) (RGB: 80, 200, 120)|
|style = "background-color: #66ddaa;"|Medium Aquamarine (web color) (Hex: #66DDAA) (RGB:102, 205, 170)|
|style = "background-color: #00cc99;"|Caribbean Green (Crayola) (Hex: #00CC99) (RGB: 0, 204, 153)|
|style = "background-color: #99cc66;"|Dull Green (Hex: #99CC66) (RGB: 153, 204, 102)|
|style = "background-color: #20b2aa;"|Light Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #20B2AA) (RGB: 32, 178, 170)|
|style = "background-color: #3cb371;"|Medium Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #3CB371) (RGB: 60, 179, 113)|
|style = "background-color: #00a550;"|Pigment Green (CMYK) (Hex: #00A550) (RGB: 0, 165, 80)|
|style = "background-color: #00ab66;"|GO Green (GO Transit (Toronto)) (Hex: #00AB66) (RGB: 0, 171, 102)|
|style = "background-color: #00a86b;"|Jade Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #00A86B) (RGB: 0, 168, 107)|
|style = "background-color: #009f6b;"|Green (NCS) (Hex: #009F6B) (RGB: 0, 159, 107)|
|style = "background-color: #1cac78;"|Green (Crayola) (Hex: #1CAC78) (RGB: 28, 172, 120)|
|style = "background-color: #00a877;"|Green (Munsell) (Munsell 5G Green) (Hex: #00A877) (RGB: 0, 168, 119)|
|style = "background-color: #3eb489;"|Mint (Mint Leaf (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #3EB489) (RGB: 62, 180, 137)|
|style = "background-color: #29ab87;"|Jungle Green (Crayola) (Hex: #29AB87) (RGB: 41, 171, 135)|
|style = "background-color: #00ad83;"|Green (Pantone) (Green Grey) (Hex: #00AD83) (RGB: 0, 173, 131)|
|style = "background-color: #00a693;"|Persian Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #00A693) (RGB: 0, 166, 147)|
|style = "background-color: #1ab385;"|Mountain Meadow (Crayola) (Hex: #1AB385) (RGB: 26, 179, 133)|
|style = "background-color: #009b7d;"|Spanish Viridian (_Verde Verones_ Gallego & Sanz) (Hex: #009B7D) (RGB: 0, 155, 125)|
|style = "background-color: #009e60;"|Shamrock Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #009E60) (RGB: 0, 158, 96)|
|style = "background-color: #00993a;"|Christmas Green (Liquitex Soft Body Decorative colors) (Hex: #00993A) (RGB: 0, 153, 58)|
|style = "background-color: #009000;"|Islamic Green (Islamic flag) (Hex: #009000) (RGB: 0, 144, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #138808;"|India Green (Flag of India) (Hex: #138808) (RGB: 19, 136, 8)|
|style = "background-color: #2e8b57;"|Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #2E8B57) (RGB: 46, 139, 87)|
|style = "background-color: #228b22;"|Forest Green (web color) (Hex: #228B22) (RGB:34, 139, 34)|
|style = "background-color: #7ba05b;"|Asparagus (Crayola) (Hex: #7BA05B) (RGB: 123, 160, 91)|
|style = "background-color: #7da98d;"|Bay Leaf (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #7DA98D) (RGB: 125, 169, 141)|
|style = "background-color: #c0db50;"|Leaf Green (Hex: #C0DB50) (RGB: 192, 219, 80)|
|style = "background-color: #8fbc8f;"|Dark Sea Green (web color) (Hex: #8FBC8F) (RGB: 143, 188, 143)|
|style = "background-color: #9ab973;"|Olivine (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #9AB973) (RGB: 154, 185, 115)|
|style = "background-color: #93c572;"|Pistachio (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #93C572) (RGB: 147, 197, 146)|
|style = "background-color: #9acd32;"|Yellow-Green (web color) (Hex: #9ACD32) (RGB: 154, 205, 50)|
|style = "background-color: #a1c50a;"|Citrus (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #A1C50A) (RGB: 161, 197, 10)|
|style = "background-color: #8db600;"|Apple Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #8DB600) (RGB: 141, 182, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #8a9a5b;"|Moss Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #8A9A5B) (RGB:138, 154, 91)|
|style = "background-color: #78866b;"|Camouflage Green (Hex: #78866B) (RGB: 120, 134, 107)|
|style = "background-color: #679267;"|Russian Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #679267) (RGB: 103, 146, 103)|
|style = "background-color: #6b8e23;"|Olive Drab (web color) (Hex: #6B8E23) (RGB: 107, 142, 35)|
|style = "background-color: #808000;"|Olive (web color) (Hex: #808000) (RGB: 128, 128, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #44944a;"|Medium Harlequin (Harlequin (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #44944A) (RGB: 68, 148, 74)|
|style = "background-color: #3b7e00; color: #ffffff"|Napier Green (Original British Racing Green) (Hex: #3B7E00) (RGB: 59, 126, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #556b2f; color:#ffffff"|Dark Olive Green (web color Dark Chartreuse Green) (Hex: #556B2F) (RGB: 85, 107, 47)|
|style = "background-color: #507d2a; color:#ffffff"|Sap Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #507D2A) (RGB: 80, 125, 42)|
|style = "background-color: #4f7942; color:#ffffff"|Fern Green (Crayola) (Hex: #4F7942) (RGB: 79, 121, 66)|
|style = "background-color: #008000; color: #ffffff "|Green (Ao English) (HTML/CSS “Green”) (Grass) (Hex: #008000) (RGB: 0, 128, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #008080; color:#ffffff"|Teal (web color) (Hex: #008080) (RGB: 0, 128, 128)|
|style = "background-color: #0095b6; color:#ffffff"|Blue-Green (Crayola) (Hex: #0095B6) (RGB: 0, 149, 182)|
|style = "background-color: #009698; color: #ffffff "|Viridian Green (Pantone TPX 17-5126) (Hex: #009698) (RGB: 0, 150,152)|
|style = "background-color: #01796f; color: #ffffff "|Pine Green (Crayola) (Hex: #01796F) (RGB:1, 121, 111)|
|style = "background-color: #007474; color: #ffffff "|Skobeloff (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #007474) (RGB: 0, 122, 116)|
|style = "background-color: #317873; color: #ffffff "|Myrtle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #317873) (RGB: 49, 120, 115)|
|style = "background-color: #2b6963; color: #ffffff "|Antique Green (Pantone TPX 18-5418) (Hex: #2B6963) (RGB: 43, 105, 99)|
|style = "background-color: #40826d; color: #ffffff "|Viridian (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #40826D) (RGB:64, 130, 109)|
|style = "background-color: #3b7a57; color: #ffffff"|Amazon (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #3B7A57) (RGB: 59, 122, 87)|
|style = "background-color: #00755e; color: #ffffff"|Tropical Rainforest (Crayola) (Hex: #00755E) (RGB: 0, 117, 94)|
|style = "background-color: #177245; color: #ffffff "|Dark Spring Green (web color) (Hex: #177245) (RGB: 23, 114, 69)|
|style = "background-color: #006a4e; color: #ffffff "|Bottle Green (Bangladesh Green) (Flag of Bangladesh) (Hex: #006A4E) (RGB: 0, 106, 78)|
|style = "background-color: #006600; color: #ffffff "|Pakistan Green (Flag of Pakistan) (Hex: #006600) (RGB: 0, 102, 0)|
|style = "background-color: #037949; color: #ffffff "|Medium Green (Hex: #037949) (RGB: 3, 121, 73)|
|style = "background-color: #006400; color: #ffffff "|Dark Green (web color) (Hex: #006400) (RGB: 0, 100, 0)|
|style="background-color: #056608; color: #ffffff "|Deep Green (Crayola: Green) (Hex: #056608) (RGB: 5, 102, 8)|
|style = "background-color: #306030; color:#ffffff"|Mughal Green (Flag of Mughal Empire) (Hex: #306030) (RGB: 48, 96, 98)|
|style = "background-color: #355e3b; color:#ffffff"|Hunter Green (Maerz & Paul) (Hex: #355E3B) (RGB: 53, 94, 59)|
|style = "background-color: #4d5d53; color:#ffffff"|Feldgrau (Mindjunker) (Hex: #4D5D53) (RGB: 77, 93, 83)|
|style = "background-color: #4b5320; color:#ffffff"|Army Green (Hex: #4B5320) (RGB: 75, 83, 32)|
|style = "background-color: #444c38; color:#ffffff"|Rifle Green (Pantone TPX 19-0419) (Hex: #444C38) (RGB: 68, 76, 56)|
|style = "background-color: #465945; color:#ffffff"|Gray-Asparagus (Hex: #465945) (RGB: 70, 89, 69)|
|style = "background-color: #1b4d3e; color: #ffffff "|British Racing Green (Modern) (representative sample) (Hex: #1B4D3E) (RGB: 27, 77, 62)|
|style = "background-color: #004953; color: #ffffff "|Midnight Green (Eagle Green) (Hex: #004953) (RGB: 0, 73, 83)|
|style = "background-color: #004b49; color: #ffffff"|Deep Jungle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #004B49) (RGB: 0, 75, 73)|
|style = "background-color: #354230; color: #ffffff"|Kombu Green (Pantone TPX 19-0417) (Hex: #354230) (RGB: 53, 66, 48)|
|style = "background-color: #1c352d; color: #ffffff"|Medium Jungle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #1C352D) (RGB: 28, 53, 45)|
|style = "background-color: #123524; color: #ffffff "|Phthalo Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #123524) (RGB: 18, 53, 26)|
|style = "background-color: #1a2421; color: #ffffff"|Dark Jungle Green (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #1A2421) (RGB: 26, 36, 33)|
|style = "background-color: #1a2118; color: #ffffff "|Charleston Green (Hex: #1A2118) (RGB: 26, 33, 24)|
## Related pages
- Color vision
- List of colors
- Chartreuse green
- Emerald green
- Erin
- Fruitamins
- Grape
- Gray-green
- Harlequin green
- Kiwi green
- Lime green
- Mint green
- Olive green
- Parrot
- Spring green
- Sweet Lime green
- Viridian
## Infobox (color)
- **title**: Green
- **hex**: 008000
- **caption**: Clockwise, from top left: Spain, Spanish gold and emerald pendant; chestnut-fronted macaw; _Arnolfini Portrait_ by Jan van Eyck; a billiards table; countryside in France; a graduating class of United States Marine Corps, U.S. Marines; Lime (fruit), limes
- **wavelength**: 495570
- **frequency**: ≈575525
- **source**: X11
- **r**: 0
- **g**: 100
- **b**: 0
|
high
| false
| false
|
309
|
God's eye view
|
**God's eye view** is a name for a [point of view](15604) where the speaker or writer assumes they have [knowledge](411) only [God](305) would have. It appears several ways:
- In [religion](653), when an [institution](60256) claims to speak for a divine being.
- In [writing](3681), when a writer leaves the [point of view](15604) of the main actor to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life.
- In [science](700), when a [scientist](748) ignores the way a [subject-object problem](1051055) affects [statistics](789) or an [observer effect](63534) affects [experiment](224).
- In [medicine](3793) when a doctor makes a claim that The Gaze they use on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem.
- In [ethics](226) when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the process of deciding this consider all points of view.
A special case of the last is in a [wiki](907) with a GodKing. Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views.
Many people think [René Descartes](12833) took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum. [George Berkeley](121986) argued that [optics](11213) from [Isaac Newton](5123) and [Johannes Kepler](33790) also had this problem.
|
**God's eye view** is a name for a point of view where the speaker or writer assumes they have knowledge only God would have. It appears several ways:
- In religion, when an institution claims to speak for a divine being.
- In writing, when a writer leaves the point of view of the main actor to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life.
- In science, when a scientist ignores the way a subject-object problem affects statistics or an observer effect affects experiment.
- In medicine when a doctor makes a claim that The Gaze they use on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem.
- In ethics when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the process of deciding this consider all points of view.
A special case of the last is in a wiki with a GodKing. Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views.
Many people think René Descartes took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum. George Berkeley argued that optics from Isaac Newton and Johannes Kepler also had this problem.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
310
|
Google
|
**Google** is an American [multinational corporation](474901) from the [United States](219587). Known for creating and running one of the largest [search engine](774)s on the [World Wide Web](905), also known as the (WWW). Every day more than a [billion](467299) people use it. Google's [headquarters](58357) (known as the "[Googleplex](528555)") is in [Mountain View, California](198268), part of [Silicon Valley](52765). The [motto](124211) of Google is "Do the right thing".
## Overview
Google's American [website](908) has an [Alexa](1175722) rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a [verb](893) that means "to search for something on Google". By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its [database](39657), 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messages—six billion things. Because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has also been used to mean "to search the web". Most importantly, Google created the [Google Gnome Game](664834) in June of 2018.
## Google Chrome and Google Search
Google has a search engine called Google Search, and a browser called Google Chrome (or Chrome for short). Google Search can find [picture](6079)s, [video](23322)s, [news](14059), [Usenet](6295) newsgroups, and things to [buy online](317631). Google Search is the default search engine for Chrome. Google also has an [open-source](3621) browser called [Chromium](719750), which Chrome is based on.
## History
[Larry Page](498823) and [Sergey Brin](659290), two students at [Stanford University](41309), USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998, at a friend's garage in [Menlo Park](198271), [California](3009). In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., [Palo Alto, California](11585), and then later moved to Googleplex.
In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. [Patent](19139). The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the [inventor](15229) (the person who first had the idea). Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make [contract](4060)s, helps to make accounts better and gives engineering help.
Since June 1, 2016, Google has been owned by a [holding company](548257) called [Alphabet Inc.](516606). That company has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its [driver](254445)less cars. It is a [public company](448258) that trades on the [NASDAQ](188091) under the ticker symbols GOOG and GOOGL.
## Advertising
Google makes money by [advertising](3544). People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement.
Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a website. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.
## Branding
The name "Google" is a play of the word _[googol](18178)_. Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician [Edward Kasner](25238), made this word in 1937, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10<sup>100</sup>).
Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name. The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "[googolplex](24137)", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 10<sup>10<sup>100</sup></sup>.
## Products
- [**Android**](244851)** **is an [operating system](587) for [mobile device](86729)s and was originally made by Google as part of the [Open Handset Alliance](294961).
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Adsense](https://adsense.google.com/)**</span> is a free program that enables website publishers of all sizes to display relevant Google ads and earn money.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Analytics](http://analytics.google.com/)**</span> is the enterprise-class web analytics solution that gives one rich insights into his website traffic and marketing effectiveness.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Alerts](http://alerts.google.com/)**</span> Google Alerts are email updates of the latest relevant Google results (web, news, etc.) based on one's choice of query or topic.
- **[Google Allo](955004)** was software for discussing with other people live.
- [**Google Gemini**](1107407) is a [chatbot](312534) and virtual assistant application built and installed into some Android devices running [Android 9](854432) and up.
- **[Google Assistant](640037)** is a virtual assistant application built into Android devices.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Blogger](http://www.blogger.com/)**</span> is a free tool that allows users to publish [blog](115426)s on a Google website.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Books](https://books.google.com)**</span> lets people search for books.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Calendar](http://calendar.google.com)**</span> is an online [calendar](7517).
- **[Google Chrome](127687)** is a web browser that Google made.
- **Google Classroom** is an online system for students. It was popular during [COVID-19](733960).
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Docs](http://docs.google.com)**</span> is an online document editor.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Drive](http://drive.google.com)**</span> is an online file storing service.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Earth](32321)**</span> is the [3D](7126) version of [Google Maps](32326) with a [digital](69896) [globe](7648).
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Groups**</span> is a place for users to discuss topics. Google bought Deja News in 2001 and made it into Google Groups.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Images](http://images.google.com)**</span> is an image search [utility](223575).
- **[Google Maps](32326)** is a service from Google to provide satellite pictures and road maps for everywhere around the world.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google News](https://news.google.com)**</span> is a facility which shows [news](14059) stories from over 4,500 news [source](76824)s. [Google News Archives](https://news.google.com/archivesearch)
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Pay](http://pay.google.com)**</span> is a way to pay online. Users can send money using their [credit card](77607)s or bank accounts to other users.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Photos](https://photos.google.com/)**</span> is a software for organizing and editing photos.
- **[Google Play](345173)** is a sector that has games, and other things.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Products](https://www.google.com/intl/en/about/products?tab=wh)**</span> is a pack of Google software.
- **[Google Search](264968)** is a search [utility](223575).
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Shopping](http://www.google.com/products)**</span> lets the user find out about things for sale on the [Internet](362).
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Translate](391944)**</span> is an online [translation](4782) service. It can translate websites and text into other languages.
- <span class="plainlinks">**[Google Sites](http://sites.google.com/)**</span> is a service for making websites.
- **Google Video** is a [video](23322) search [utility](223575).
- **Gmail** is an [e-mail](19235) service that Google started in 2004. It is called **Google Mail** in the [United Kingdom](856) and [Germany](219828). Users get free space to store e-mail.
- **[Hangouts](24370)** is an instant messenger where one can talk to friends. It ended up shutting down on November 1, 2021.
- Sidewalk Labs
- **Tenor** is a search utility for GIF files
- **Waze** is a [navigation](24154) service that gives driving directions.
## Gallery
|Daily Offers|
| --- |
|Google Selling For [Android](244851) And [Chromebook](565007).|
## Related pages
- [Android](244851)
- [Chromebook](565007)
## References
**Notes**
## Other websites
- [The search engine](https://www.google.com)
## Infobox (company)
- **name**: Google
- **logo caption**: The logo used for Google since 2015
- **image**: Googleplex HQ (cropped).jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **image caption**: Google's headquarters, the Googleplex
- **former name**: Google Inc. (1998–2017)
- **type**: Subsidiary (Limited liability company, LLC)
- **founded**: 1995 (first prototype)
1997 (second prototype)
(final launch) in Menlo Park, California, Menlo Park, California, United States
- **hq location**: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway
- **hq location city**: Mountain View, California
- **hq location country**: United States
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **products**: List of Google products
- **num employees**: 114,096
- **parent**: Independent (1997-2016)
Alphabet Inc. (2016–present)
|
**Google** is an American multinational corporation from the United States. Known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web, also known as the (WWW). Every day more than a billion people use it. Google's headquarters (known as the "Googleplex") is in Mountain View, California, part of Silicon Valley. The motto of Google is "Do the right thing".
## Overview
Google's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a verb that means "to search for something on Google". By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messages—six billion things. Because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has also been used to mean "to search the web". Most importantly, Google created the Google Gnome Game in June of 2018.
## Google Chrome and Google Search
Google has a search engine called Google Search, and a browser called Google Chrome (or Chrome for short). Google Search can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online. Google Search is the default search engine for Chrome. Google also has an open-source browser called Chromium, which Chrome is based on.
## History
Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998, at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California, and then later moved to Googleplex.
In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent. The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea). Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps to make accounts better and gives engineering help.
Since June 1, 2016, Google has been owned by a holding company called Alphabet Inc.. That company has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars. It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the ticker symbols GOOG and GOOGL.
## Advertising
Google makes money by advertising. People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement.
Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a website. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.
## Branding
The name "Google" is a play of the word _googol_. Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1937, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10<sup>100</sup>).
Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name. The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "googolplex", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 10<sup>10<sup>100</sup></sup>.
## Products
- **Android**** **is an operating system for mobile devices and was originally made by Google as part of the Open Handset Alliance.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Adsense**</span> is a free program that enables website publishers of all sizes to display relevant Google ads and earn money.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Analytics**</span> is the enterprise-class web analytics solution that gives one rich insights into his website traffic and marketing effectiveness.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Alerts**</span> Google Alerts are email updates of the latest relevant Google results (web, news, etc.) based on one's choice of query or topic.
- **Google Allo** was software for discussing with other people live.
- **Google Gemini** is a chatbot and virtual assistant application built and installed into some Android devices running Android 9 and up.
- **Google Assistant** is a virtual assistant application built into Android devices.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Blogger**</span> is a free tool that allows users to publish blogs on a Google website.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Books**</span> lets people search for books.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Calendar**</span> is an online calendar.
- **Google Chrome** is a web browser that Google made.
- **Google Classroom** is an online system for students. It was popular during COVID-19.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Docs**</span> is an online document editor.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Drive**</span> is an online file storing service.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Earth**</span> is the 3D version of Google Maps with a digital globe.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Groups**</span> is a place for users to discuss topics. Google bought Deja News in 2001 and made it into Google Groups.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Images**</span> is an image search utility.
- **Google Maps** is a service from Google to provide satellite pictures and road maps for everywhere around the world.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google News**</span> is a facility which shows news stories from over 4,500 news sources. Google News Archives
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Pay**</span> is a way to pay online. Users can send money using their credit cards or bank accounts to other users.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Photos**</span> is a software for organizing and editing photos.
- **Google Play** is a sector that has games, and other things.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Products**</span> is a pack of Google software.
- **Google Search** is a search utility.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Shopping**</span> lets the user find out about things for sale on the Internet.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Translate**</span> is an online translation service. It can translate websites and text into other languages.
- <span class="plainlinks">**Google Sites**</span> is a service for making websites.
- **Google Video** is a video search utility.
- **Gmail** is an e-mail service that Google started in 2004. It is called **Google Mail** in the United Kingdom and Germany. Users get free space to store e-mail.
- **Hangouts** is an instant messenger where one can talk to friends. It ended up shutting down on November 1, 2021.
- Sidewalk Labs
- **Tenor** is a search utility for GIF files
- **Waze** is a navigation service that gives driving directions.
## Gallery
|Daily Offers|
| --- |
|Google Selling For Android And Chromebook.|
## Related pages
- Android
- Chromebook
## References
**Notes**
## Other websites
- The search engine
## Infobox (company)
- **name**: Google
- **logo caption**: The logo used for Google since 2015
- **image**: Googleplex HQ (cropped).jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **image caption**: Google's headquarters, the Googleplex
- **former name**: Google Inc. (1998–2017)
- **type**: Subsidiary (Limited liability company, LLC)
- **founded**: 1995 (first prototype)
1997 (second prototype)
(final launch) in Menlo Park, California, Menlo Park, California, United States
- **hq location**: 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway
- **hq location city**: Mountain View, California
- **hq location country**: United States
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **products**: List of Google products
- **num employees**: 114,096
- **parent**: Independent (1997-2016)
Alphabet Inc. (2016–present)
|
high
| false
| false
|
311
|
Gallon
|
A **gallon** is a [volumetric](895) [unit of measurement](872). People have used many different gallons throughout history. Only two gallons are still commonly used, which are the imperial and U.S. liquid gallon. 1 imperial gallon is 4.5 [litre](461)s and 1 U.S. liquid gallon is 4.4 litres
## Sale of petrol
Petrol, also known as [gasoline](19520), is sold by the imperial gallon in four [British Overseas Territories](66399) ([Anguilla](20611), the [British Virgin Islands](20484), the [Cayman Islands](19226), and [Montserrat](18309)) and six countries ([Antigua and Barbuda](6239), [Dominica](9214), [Grenada](12210), Saint Christopher and Nevis, [Saint Lucia](20412), and [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](18322)). All of the countries and territories just mentioned also use [miles per hour](48724) for speed limits and [drive on the left side of the road](343409).
Gasoline is sold by the U.S. gallon in [Belize](8284), [Colombia](6351), [Dominican Republic](15648), [Ecuador](11243), [Guatemala](10298), [Haiti](15863), [Liberia](12333), [Nicaragua](132619), and [Peru](2915), as well as in the [Marshall Islands](5888), [Federated States of Micronesia](29886), and [Palau](27481).
## Sizes
|1 imperial gallon|= 4.54609 [litre](461)s (exactly)|
| --- | --- |
||= 8 imperial [pint](384)s|
||= 160 imperial [fluid ounces](2809)|
||≈ 1.20 U.S. wet gallons|
||≈ 1.03 U.S. dry gallons|
||= 10 pounds of pure water at 62° Fahrenheit|
|1 U.S. wet gallon|= 231 cubic [inch](381)es = 3 in × 7 in × 11 in **This is the gallon commonly used in the US.**|
||= 128 U.S. fl. oz.|
||= 8 U.S. wet pints|
||= of a U.S. oil [barrel](138192)|
||= 3.785411784 litres (exactly)|
||≈ 0.83 imperial gallons|
||≈ 0.86 U.S. dry gallons|
||≈ 8.33 pounds of pure water at room temperature|
|1 U.S. dry gallon|= 268.8025 cubic inches **Occasionally used in the US.**|
||= 8 U.S. dry pints|
||= of a U.S. bushel|
||= 4.40488377086 litres (exactly)|
||≈ 0.97 imperial gallons|
||≈ 1.16 U.S. wet gallons|
|
A **gallon** is a volumetric unit of measurement. People have used many different gallons throughout history. Only two gallons are still commonly used, which are the imperial and U.S. liquid gallon. 1 imperial gallon is 4.5 litres and 1 U.S. liquid gallon is 4.4 litres
## Sale of petrol
Petrol, also known as gasoline, is sold by the imperial gallon in four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and six countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). All of the countries and territories just mentioned also use miles per hour for speed limits and drive on the left side of the road.
Gasoline is sold by the U.S. gallon in Belize, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Liberia, Nicaragua, and Peru, as well as in the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau.
## Sizes
|1 imperial gallon|= 4.54609 litres (exactly)|
| --- | --- |
||= 8 imperial pints|
||= 160 imperial fluid ounces|
||≈ 1.20 U.S. wet gallons|
||≈ 1.03 U.S. dry gallons|
||= 10 pounds of pure water at 62° Fahrenheit|
|1 U.S. wet gallon|= 231 cubic inches = 3 in × 7 in × 11 in **This is the gallon commonly used in the US.**|
||= 128 U.S. fl. oz.|
||= 8 U.S. wet pints|
||= of a U.S. oil barrel|
||= 3.785411784 litres (exactly)|
||≈ 0.83 imperial gallons|
||≈ 0.86 U.S. dry gallons|
||≈ 8.33 pounds of pure water at room temperature|
|1 U.S. dry gallon|= 268.8025 cubic inches **Occasionally used in the US.**|
||= 8 U.S. dry pints|
||= of a U.S. bushel|
||= 4.40488377086 litres (exactly)|
||≈ 0.97 imperial gallons|
||≈ 1.16 U.S. wet gallons|
|
high
| false
| false
|
312
|
Government
|
A **government** is a group of people that have the [power](37238) to rule in a [territory](156768), according to the [administrative law](522533). This territory may be a [country](121), a [state](798) or [province](6617) within a country, or a region. There are many types of government, such as democratic, parliamentary, presidential, [federal](65160) or [unitary](343302).
## Works
- Governments make [law](426)s, rules and regulations, collect [tax](4013)es and print [money](479).
- Governments have monopolies on the legal use of force.
- Governments have systems of [judiciary](59311) that list the acts or activities that are against the law and describe the punishments for breaking the law.
- Governments have law enforcement forces to make sure people within their jurisdiction follow the laws.
- Governments have [diplomats](20491) who communicate with the governments of other [countries](121) by having meetings. Diplomats try to solve problems or disagreements between two countries, which can help countries to avoid war, make commercial agreements, and exchange cultural or social experiences and [knowledge](411).
- Governments have a [military](3516) force such as an [army](2115) that protects the country from enemy countries, terrorists and other major threats that attack or which can be used to attack and invade other countries.
- Governments have security guards to protect the leader of a country.
- The [head of state](4866) of a government may have [advisor](6797)s and [ministers](21081) for various departments. Together they are called the [administration](46904).
## Types of governments
[Plato](3684) listed five kinds of government in _[The Republic](13148):_
### Democracy
The most common type of government in the Western world is called [democracy](3195). In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on [legislature](457)s such as the [Parliament](4075) or [Congress](51928). [Political parties](606) are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.
However, many countries have forms of [democracy](3195) which limit freedom of choice by the voters. One of the most common ways is to limit which parties can stand for parliament, or limit the parties' access to mass media such as television. Another way is to rig (unfairly manipulate or interfere with) the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power. Few countries are textbook (classic, paradigmatic) democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied.
### Monarchy
A [monarchy](4073) is a government ruled by a [king](410), queen, [emperor](9224) or empress who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an [absolute monarchy](323372), the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a [constitutional monarchy](344867) a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a [constitution](173).
In modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the [Commonwealth of Nations](31668), the [Netherlands](3463), [Spain](219832), [Japan](403), [Saudi Arabia](6350), and [Thailand](10138), along with several other countries. A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Empress or Empress, or [Emir](146363).
### Aristocracy
An [aristocracy](25615) is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place. A person who rules in an [aristocracy](25615) is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, whereas an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.
### Dictatorship
Under a [dictatorship](7162), the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. A dictatorship may also be called one-man rule or [autocracy](20951). Plato called it [tyranny](58855).
Originally, the [Roman Republic](41095) made dictators to lead during time of war. The [Roman dictators](562696) (and Greek [tyrant](58855)s) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people. Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time.
In modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades. After leaving the [Spanish Empire](64135), many countries in [Latin America](7170) were dictatorships. World War II was partly a war between dictators, and later new countries in [Asia](1994) and [Africa](1942) also were ruled by dictators.
### Oligarchy
An [oligarchy](20953) is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. More so a different version of a monarchy, where everyone makes [decisions](13981) together instead of one person making them all or telling people what to do, such as in a Dictatorship. An oligarchy is different from a true [democracy](3195) because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son.
An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and [Apartheid](6393) [South Africa](3528). A fictional example is the [dystopia](90822)n society of _Oceania_ in the book [Nineteen Eighty-Four](15204). Some critics of representative democracy think of the [United States](219587) as an oligarchy. Robert Michel's Iron Law of Oligarchy says all democratic organizations become oligarchies. This view is shared by [anarchists](4807) and some [libertarians](4843). An oligarchy may have a leader in the ruling group.
## The history and the theory of government
The simplest idea of government is those who [rule](12655) over people and [land](20961). This may be as small as a community or [village](6116) or as big as a [continent](117) (like [Australia](27)).
The people who rule can allow others to own land. It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that [law](426)s describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called [libertarianism](4843). Others think they can do without government. This view is called [anarchism](4807).
Almost every place on [Earth](219) is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small [border dispute](41677)d areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it. The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a [King](410)" (sovereign). Governments of [village](6116)s, [cities](144), [counties](5893) and other [communities](17207) are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the [country](121).
It is from Kings and [feudalism](52474) that modern governments and [nation state](135605)s came. The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his [asset](46642)s. From this we get the modern idea of [capital](46686) in [economics](246). A government may regulate [trade](2127) as well as to rule over land.
Governments also control people and decide things about what [morality](49279) to accept or punish. In many countries, there are strict rules about [sexual intercourse](237113) and [drug](9089)s which are part of [law](426) and offenders are punished for disobeying them.
[Tax](4013) is how government is paid for in most countries. People who buy, [sell](109585), [import](371878), invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the [money](479) to a government.
There are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of [civics](159). Many people think [leader](3616)s must be elected by some kind of [democracy](3195). That way, they can be replaced at [election](3790). Many governments are not a [democracy](3195) but other forms in which only a few people have power.
There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of [politics](592).
## Related pages
- [Constitution](173)
- Justice system
- [Law](426)
- Legal rights
- [Local government](48849)
- [Political economy](50952)
- [State](798)
- [Big Government](935881)
|
A **government** is a group of people that have the power to rule in a territory, according to the administrative law. This territory may be a country, a state or province within a country, or a region. There are many types of government, such as democratic, parliamentary, presidential, federal or unitary.
## Works
- Governments make laws, rules and regulations, collect taxes and print money.
- Governments have monopolies on the legal use of force.
- Governments have systems of judiciary that list the acts or activities that are against the law and describe the punishments for breaking the law.
- Governments have law enforcement forces to make sure people within their jurisdiction follow the laws.
- Governments have diplomats who communicate with the governments of other countries by having meetings. Diplomats try to solve problems or disagreements between two countries, which can help countries to avoid war, make commercial agreements, and exchange cultural or social experiences and knowledge.
- Governments have a military force such as an army that protects the country from enemy countries, terrorists and other major threats that attack or which can be used to attack and invade other countries.
- Governments have security guards to protect the leader of a country.
- The head of state of a government may have advisors and ministers for various departments. Together they are called the administration.
## Types of governments
Plato listed five kinds of government in _The Republic:_
### Democracy
The most common type of government in the Western world is called democracy. In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.
However, many countries have forms of democracy which limit freedom of choice by the voters. One of the most common ways is to limit which parties can stand for parliament, or limit the parties' access to mass media such as television. Another way is to rig (unfairly manipulate or interfere with) the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power. Few countries are textbook (classic, paradigmatic) democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied.
### Monarchy
A monarchy is a government ruled by a king, queen, emperor or empress who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution.
In modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the Commonwealth of Nations, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Thailand, along with several other countries. A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Empress or Empress, or Emir.
### Aristocracy
An aristocracy is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, whereas an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.
### Dictatorship
Under a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. A dictatorship may also be called one-man rule or autocracy. Plato called it tyranny.
Originally, the Roman Republic made dictators to lead during time of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people. Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time.
In modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades. After leaving the Spanish Empire, many countries in Latin America were dictatorships. World War II was partly a war between dictators, and later new countries in Asia and Africa also were ruled by dictators.
### Oligarchy
An oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. More so a different version of a monarchy, where everyone makes decisions together instead of one person making them all or telling people what to do, such as in a Dictatorship. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son.
An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid South Africa. A fictional example is the dystopian society of _Oceania_ in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. Robert Michel's Iron Law of Oligarchy says all democratic organizations become oligarchies. This view is shared by anarchists and some libertarians. An oligarchy may have a leader in the ruling group.
## The history and the theory of government
The simplest idea of government is those who rule over people and land. This may be as small as a community or village or as big as a continent (like Australia).
The people who rule can allow others to own land. It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that laws describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called libertarianism. Others think they can do without government. This view is called anarchism.
Almost every place on Earth is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small border disputed areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it. The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a King" (sovereign). Governments of villages, cities, counties and other communities are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the country.
It is from Kings and feudalism that modern governments and nation states came. The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his assets. From this we get the modern idea of capital in economics. A government may regulate trade as well as to rule over land.
Governments also control people and decide things about what morality to accept or punish. In many countries, there are strict rules about sexual intercourse and drugs which are part of law and offenders are punished for disobeying them.
Tax is how government is paid for in most countries. People who buy, sell, import, invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the money to a government.
There are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of civics. Many people think leaders must be elected by some kind of democracy. That way, they can be replaced at election. Many governments are not a democracy but other forms in which only a few people have power.
There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of politics.
## Related pages
- Constitution
- Justice system
- Law
- Legal rights
- Local government
- Political economy
- State
- Big Government
|
unknown
| false
| false
|
314
|
Galaxy
|
A **galaxy** is a group of many stars, with [gas](3283), [dust](397626), and [dark matter](34685). The name 'galaxy' is taken from the [Greek](4606) word _galaxia_ meaning [milk](3398)y, a reference to our own galaxy, the [Milky Way](505).
[Gravity](2901) holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe. In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups. Gravity holds the galaxy together. The same applies to groups and clusters of galaxies, such as our [Local Group](303707) where the Milky Way is, and the [Virgo Cluster](357585), a collection of more than 1,000 (might even be 2,000) galaxies. The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies. Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity.
There are various types of galaxies: [elliptical](357603), [spiral](265765) and [lenticular](331020) galaxies, which can all be with or without [bars](281095). There are also [irregular](358114) galaxies.
All galaxies exist inside the [universe](858). The [observable Universe](400923) contains more than 2 trillion (10<sup>12</sup>) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the [grains of sand](25734) on planet [Earth](219)).
## Description
There are galaxies of different sizes and type. Typical galaxies range from [dwarfs](357623) with as few as ten million (10<sup>7</sup>) stars up to giants with a hundred [trillion](310850) (10<sup>14</sup>) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's [center of mass](271286). Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, [star cluster](197662)s, and various [interstellar cloud](722279)s. The [Sun](44408) is one of the stars in the [Milky Way](505) galaxy; the [Solar System](800) includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun.
[Star cluster](197662)<nowiki/>s are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies. Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer [halo](29268) of the Milky Way. One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, [Messier 15](327057), has several million stars, packed closely together, with a [black hole](3506) at its centre. The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies.
Within [galaxy cluster](357618)s, galaxies move relative to other galaxies. They sometimes collide. When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, making a [Starburst galaxy](401087) with a burst of new stars. Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.
Many galaxies continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. This [star formation](392675) happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up.
In the [astronomical](48) [literature](3887), the word 'Galaxy' with a capital _G_ is used for our galaxy, the [Milky Way](505). The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase _g_. The term _Milky Way_ first came out in the English language in a poem by [Chaucer](16687).
When [William Herschel](109181) wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name _spiral [nebula](96972)_ for objects like the [Andromeda Galaxy](249671). 200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures in a galaxy.
## Types
There are two main kinds of galaxies, [spiral galaxy](265765) and [elliptical galaxy](357603). They are classified according to the [Hubble Sequence](265802).
### Spiral galaxy
A **spiral galaxy** is a galaxy that has a [spiral](167867) shape. Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by [astronomer](4491)<nowiki/>s are spiral galaxies (about 77%).
They are divided into two :
- Barred spiral galaxy (classified as "SB")
- Unbarred spiral galaxy (classified as "SA")
[NGC 1300](537437) and [NGC 1672](537445) are examples of barred spiral galaxies. The [Whirlpool galaxy](530133) and [Messier 81](478356) are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies.
The identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core. The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born. "Bulge" in the galactic core has old stars. This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies.
### Elliptical galaxy
An **elliptical galaxy** is a galaxy that has a [ellipsoid](28524) (3D of [ellipse](33840)) shape. This type of galaxy are dominant in [universe](858), especially in [galaxy cluster](357618)<nowiki/>s. The shape ranges from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped. In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class :
- E0 (circle-shape)
- E53 (ellipse-shape)
- E7 (cigar-shaped)
Elliptical galaxies have a large range in size. The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million [light year](2143)s and the smallest (know as "dwarf elliptical galaxy") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way The effective radius defines the area from which half its light comes. The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large. A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 10<sup>13</sup> (many trillions) of solar masses.
### Other kinds of galaxies
A **lenticular galaxy** is a galaxy seen as a disc shape. The shape of a lenticular galaxy is between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the [galactic center](391094). If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy.
## Related pages
- [List of galaxies](4414)
- [List of nearest galaxies](4415)
- [Most distant things](415762)
- [Local Group](303707)
- [IC 1101](357657): the largest known galaxy, with about 100 [trillion](310850) stars.
- [Milky Way](505)
- [Andromeda galaxy](249671)
## Other websites
- [Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages](http://www.seds.org/messier/galaxy.html)
- [An Atlas of The Universe](http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/)
- [Galaxies — Information and amateur observations](http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies)
- [The oldest galaxy yet found](http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm)
- [Galaxies — discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme](http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20060629.shtml)
- [Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain](http://www.galaxyzoo.org)
- [How many galaxies are in our universe?](http://www.physics.org/facts/sand-galaxies.asp)
|
A **galaxy** is a group of many stars, with gas, dust, and dark matter. The name 'galaxy' is taken from the Greek word _galaxia_ meaning milky, a reference to our own galaxy, the Milky Way.
Gravity holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe. In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups. Gravity holds the galaxy together. The same applies to groups and clusters of galaxies, such as our Local Group where the Milky Way is, and the Virgo Cluster, a collection of more than 1,000 (might even be 2,000) galaxies. The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies. Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity.
There are various types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and lenticular galaxies, which can all be with or without bars. There are also irregular galaxies.
All galaxies exist inside the universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (10<sup>12</sup>) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).
## Description
There are galaxies of different sizes and type. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (10<sup>7</sup>) stars up to giants with a hundred trillion (10<sup>14</sup>) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun.
Star cluster<nowiki/>s are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies. Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer halo of the Milky Way. One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, Messier 15, has several million stars, packed closely together, with a black hole at its centre. The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies.
Within galaxy clusters, galaxies move relative to other galaxies. They sometimes collide. When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, making a Starburst galaxy with a burst of new stars. Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.
Many galaxies continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. This star formation happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up.
In the astronomical literature, the word 'Galaxy' with a capital _G_ is used for our galaxy, the Milky Way. The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase _g_. The term _Milky Way_ first came out in the English language in a poem by Chaucer.
When William Herschel wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name _spiral nebula_ for objects like the Andromeda Galaxy. 200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures in a galaxy.
## Types
There are two main kinds of galaxies, spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. They are classified according to the Hubble Sequence.
### Spiral galaxy
A **spiral galaxy** is a galaxy that has a spiral shape. Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by astronomer<nowiki/>s are spiral galaxies (about 77%).
They are divided into two :
- Barred spiral galaxy (classified as "SB")
- Unbarred spiral galaxy (classified as "SA")
NGC 1300 and NGC 1672 are examples of barred spiral galaxies. The Whirlpool galaxy and Messier 81 are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies.
The identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core. The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born. "Bulge" in the galactic core has old stars. This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies.
### Elliptical galaxy
An **elliptical galaxy** is a galaxy that has a ellipsoid (3D of ellipse) shape. This type of galaxy are dominant in universe, especially in galaxy cluster<nowiki/>s. The shape ranges from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped. In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class :
- E0 (circle-shape)
- E53 (ellipse-shape)
- E7 (cigar-shaped)
Elliptical galaxies have a large range in size. The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million light years and the smallest (know as "dwarf elliptical galaxy") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way The effective radius defines the area from which half its light comes. The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large. A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 10<sup>13</sup> (many trillions) of solar masses.
### Other kinds of galaxies
A **lenticular galaxy** is a galaxy seen as a disc shape. The shape of a lenticular galaxy is between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the galactic center. If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy.
## Related pages
- List of galaxies
- List of nearest galaxies
- Most distant things
- Local Group
- IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.
- Milky Way
- Andromeda galaxy
## Other websites
- Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages
- An Atlas of The Universe
- Galaxies — Information and amateur observations
- The oldest galaxy yet found
- Galaxies — discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme
- Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain
- How many galaxies are in our universe?
|
medium
| false
| false
|
315
|
Geometry
|
**Geometry** (from [Ancient Greek](16174): Γεωμετρία ([romanized](680057): _Geometria_ ([English](2843): "Land measurement") derived from Γη (romanized: Ge; English: "Earth" or "land") and also derived from Μέτρον) (romanized: _Métron_; English: "A measure")) is a branch of [mathematics](467) that studies the [size](5526), [shape](7075)s, positions and dimensions of things. We can only see shapes that are flat ([2D](45131)) or solid ([3D](7126)), but [mathematician](14844)s (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are [4D](317893), 5D, 6D, and so on.
Squares, [circle](175)s and [triangle](14332)s are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry. [Cube](180)s, [cylinder](11025)s, [cone](12256)s and [sphere](3541)s are simple shapes in [solid geometry](436092).
## Uses
Plane geometry can be used to measure the [area](3926) and [perimeter](3326) of a flat shape. Solid geometry can measure a [solid](4058) shape's [volume](895) and [surface area](11189).
Geometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things. For example, geometry can help people find:
- the surface area of a [house](4900), so they can buy the right amount of [paint](26365)
- the [volume](895) of a [box](5102), to see if it is big enough to hold a [liter](461) of [food](280)
- the area of a [farm](294), so it can be divided into equal parts
- the [distance](203) around the edge of a [pond](21949), to know how much [fencing](54784) to buy.
## Origins
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometry began as the art of [surveying](80823) of [land](20961) so that it could be shared fairly between people. The word "geometry" is from a Greek word that means "to measure the land". It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The [Greek](13444) [mathematician](14844) [Euclid](20683) wrote the first book about geometry, a book called _The Elements_.
## Non-Euclidean geometry
Plane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook [Elements](299930), is called "Euclidean Geometry". This was simply called "geometry" for centuries. In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry. These and earlier kinds were called "non-Euclidean" (not created by Euclid). For example, [hyperbolic geometry](176458) and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's [parallel postulate](176468).
[Non-Euclidean geometry](96510) is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses. [Spherical geometry](411031) for example is used in [astronomy](48) and [cartography](127).
## Examples
Geometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms. Such as:
- A **[point](4372)** is shown on [paper](3319) by [touch](13408)ing it with a [pencil](4063) or [pen](7085), without making any sideways movement. We know where the point is, but it has no [size](5526).
- A **[straight](16267) [line](4373)** is the shortest [distance](203) between two points. For example, Sophie pulls a piece of string from one point to another point. A straight line between the two points will follow the path of the tight string.
- A **[plane](4374)** is a flat [surface](20962) that does not stop in any [direction](5547). For example, imagine a wall that extends in all directions infinitely.
## Related pages
- [Topology](3011)
|
**Geometry** (from Ancient Greek: Γεωμετρία (romanized: _Geometria_ (English: "Land measurement") derived from Γη (romanized: Ge; English: "Earth" or "land") and also derived from Μέτρον) (romanized: _Métron_; English: "A measure")) is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shapes, positions and dimensions of things. We can only see shapes that are flat (2D) or solid (3D), but mathematicians (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are 4D, 5D, 6D, and so on.
Squares, circles and triangles are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry. Cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres are simple shapes in solid geometry.
## Uses
Plane geometry can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a flat shape. Solid geometry can measure a solid shape's volume and surface area.
Geometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things. For example, geometry can help people find:
- the surface area of a house, so they can buy the right amount of paint
- the volume of a box, to see if it is big enough to hold a liter of food
- the area of a farm, so it can be divided into equal parts
- the distance around the edge of a pond, to know how much fencing to buy.
## Origins
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometry began as the art of surveying of land so that it could be shared fairly between people. The word "geometry" is from a Greek word that means "to measure the land". It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The Greek mathematician Euclid wrote the first book about geometry, a book called _The Elements_.
## Non-Euclidean geometry
Plane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook Elements, is called "Euclidean Geometry". This was simply called "geometry" for centuries. In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry. These and earlier kinds were called "non-Euclidean" (not created by Euclid). For example, hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's parallel postulate.
Non-Euclidean geometry is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses. Spherical geometry for example is used in astronomy and cartography.
## Examples
Geometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms. Such as:
- A **point** is shown on paper by touching it with a pencil or pen, without making any sideways movement. We know where the point is, but it has no size.
- A **straight line** is the shortest distance between two points. For example, Sophie pulls a piece of string from one point to another point. A straight line between the two points will follow the path of the tight string.
- A **plane** is a flat surface that does not stop in any direction. For example, imagine a wall that extends in all directions infinitely.
## Related pages
- Topology
|
high
| false
| false
|
316
|
Graph theory
|
**Graph theory** is a field of mathematics about graphs. A [graph](461246) is an abstract representation of: a number of [point](4372)s that are connected by [line](4373)s. Each point is usually called a _vertex_ (more than one are called _vertices_), and the lines are called _edges_. Graphs are a tool for modelling relationships. They are used to find answers to a number of problems.
Some of these questions are:
- What is the best way for a [mailman](21674) to get to all of the [house](4900)s in the area in the least amount of [time](3219)? The points could represent [street](5594) corners and lines could represent the houses along the street. (see [Chinese postman problem](21675))
- A salesman has to visit different customers, but wants to keep the distance traveled as small as possible. The problem is to find a way so they can do it. This problem is known as [Travelling Salesman Problem](38952) (and often abbreviated _TSP_). It is among the hardest problems to solve. If a commonly believed [conjecture](82811) is true (described as **P** ≠ **NP**), then an exact solution requires one to try all possible routes to find which is shortest.
- How many colors would be needed to color a map, if countries sharing a border are colored differently? The points could represent the different areas and the lines could represent that two areas are neighboring. (look at the [Four color theorem](21677))
- Can a sketch be drawn in one closed line? The lines of the drawing are the lines of the graph and when two or more lines collide, there is a point in the graph. The task is now to find a way through the graph using each line one time. (look at [Seven Bridges of Königsberg](385956))
## Different kinds of graphs
- Graph theory has many aspects. Graphs can be directed or undirected. An example of a directed graph would be the system of roads in a city. Some streets in the city are one way streets. This means, that on those parts there is only one direction to follow.
- Graphs can be weighted. An example would be a road network, with distances, or with [tolls](273913) (for roads).
- The nodes (the circles in the schematic) of a graph are called [vertices](622062). The lines connecting the nodes are called edges. There can be no line between two nodes, there can be one line, or there can be multiple lines.
- In graph theory, Trees structures are widely used, they represent [hierarchical](22207) structures. A Tree is a directed or undirected graph where there is no cycle, meaning: no way of going from one vertex (for example a town) to the same one using each edge you use only once (walking only once on each road you take).
## History
<span style="font-size: 300%;">
→
→
</span>
A visualization of the [Seven Bridges of Königberg](385956). [Leonhard Euler](52029) solved this problem in 1736, which led to the development of [topology](3011), and modern graph theory.
A **graph** is an abstract [data structure](51975). It holds nodes that are usually related to each other. A node is a dataset, typically in the form of ordered pairs. Nodes are either connected or not connected to another node. The relation between nodes is usually defined as an Edge. Graphs are useful for their ability to associate nodes with other nodes.
There are a few representations of Graphs in practice.
[Leonhard Euler](52029) used to live in a town called _Königsberg._ (Its name changed to [Kaliningrad](66732) in 1946). The town is on the river Pregel. There is an island in the river. There are some bridges across the river. Euler wanted to walk around and use each of the bridges once. He asked if he could do this. In 1736, he published a scientific article where he showed that this was not possible. Today, this problem is known as the [Seven Bridges of Königsberg](385956). The article is seen as the first paper in the history of graph theory.
This article, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the _[knight problem](645494),_ carried on with the _analysis situs_ initiated by [Leibniz](42170). Euler's formula was about the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex [polyhedron](60176) was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of [topology](3011).
The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in an article published in 1878 in _[Nature](391223)_.
One of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four color problem: "Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?"
## Graph theory in perspective
Graph theory is an important part of mathematics and [computer science](110). To many such problems, exact solutions do exist. Many times however, they are very hard to calculate. Therefore, very often, [approximation](24722)s are used. There are two kinds of such approximations, Monte-Carlo algorithms and Las-Vegas algorithms.
## Related pages
- [Data structure](51975)
|
**Graph theory** is a field of mathematics about graphs. A graph is an abstract representation of: a number of points that are connected by lines. Each point is usually called a _vertex_ (more than one are called _vertices_), and the lines are called _edges_. Graphs are a tool for modelling relationships. They are used to find answers to a number of problems.
Some of these questions are:
- What is the best way for a mailman to get to all of the houses in the area in the least amount of time? The points could represent street corners and lines could represent the houses along the street. (see Chinese postman problem)
- A salesman has to visit different customers, but wants to keep the distance traveled as small as possible. The problem is to find a way so they can do it. This problem is known as Travelling Salesman Problem (and often abbreviated _TSP_). It is among the hardest problems to solve. If a commonly believed conjecture is true (described as **P** ≠ **NP**), then an exact solution requires one to try all possible routes to find which is shortest.
- How many colors would be needed to color a map, if countries sharing a border are colored differently? The points could represent the different areas and the lines could represent that two areas are neighboring. (look at the Four color theorem)
- Can a sketch be drawn in one closed line? The lines of the drawing are the lines of the graph and when two or more lines collide, there is a point in the graph. The task is now to find a way through the graph using each line one time. (look at Seven Bridges of Königsberg)
## Different kinds of graphs
- Graph theory has many aspects. Graphs can be directed or undirected. An example of a directed graph would be the system of roads in a city. Some streets in the city are one way streets. This means, that on those parts there is only one direction to follow.
- Graphs can be weighted. An example would be a road network, with distances, or with tolls (for roads).
- The nodes (the circles in the schematic) of a graph are called vertices. The lines connecting the nodes are called edges. There can be no line between two nodes, there can be one line, or there can be multiple lines.
- In graph theory, Trees structures are widely used, they represent hierarchical structures. A Tree is a directed or undirected graph where there is no cycle, meaning: no way of going from one vertex (for example a town) to the same one using each edge you use only once (walking only once on each road you take).
## History
<span style="font-size: 300%;">
→
→
</span>
A visualization of the Seven Bridges of Königberg. Leonhard Euler solved this problem in 1736, which led to the development of topology, and modern graph theory.
A **graph** is an abstract data structure. It holds nodes that are usually related to each other. A node is a dataset, typically in the form of ordered pairs. Nodes are either connected or not connected to another node. The relation between nodes is usually defined as an Edge. Graphs are useful for their ability to associate nodes with other nodes.
There are a few representations of Graphs in practice.
Leonhard Euler used to live in a town called _Königsberg._ (Its name changed to Kaliningrad in 1946). The town is on the river Pregel. There is an island in the river. There are some bridges across the river. Euler wanted to walk around and use each of the bridges once. He asked if he could do this. In 1736, he published a scientific article where he showed that this was not possible. Today, this problem is known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg. The article is seen as the first paper in the history of graph theory.
This article, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the _knight problem,_ carried on with the _analysis situs_ initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula was about the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.
The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in an article published in 1878 in _Nature_.
One of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four color problem: "Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?"
## Graph theory in perspective
Graph theory is an important part of mathematics and computer science. To many such problems, exact solutions do exist. Many times however, they are very hard to calculate. Therefore, very often, approximations are used. There are two kinds of such approximations, Monte-Carlo algorithms and Las-Vegas algorithms.
## Related pages
- Data structure
|
low
| false
| false
|
318
|
Goatee
|
A **goatee** is a [beard](94) formed by a tuft of [hair](359) under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat.
## Other websites
- [Information on goatees](http://www.goatee.org)
|
A **goatee** is a beard formed by a tuft of hair under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat.
## Other websites
- Information on goatees
|
medium
| false
| false
|
323
|
Herm
|
**Herm** is the smallest of the [Channel Islands](6695) that is open to the public.
Herm is only 1 miles long. Cars are banned from the small [island](367) just like its Channel Island neighbour, [Sark](14794). Unlike Sark, [bicycle](3674)s are banned too. The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise.
Population: 60 (2002).
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Herm
- **native name**: _Haerme_
- **common name**: Herm
- **image flag**: Flag of Herm.svg
- **image coat**: Blason Ile Herm.svg
- **alt coat**: Coat of arms
- **symbol type**: Coat of arms
- **image map**: Uk map guernsey.png
- **national motto**: none
- **national anthem**: _Sarnia Cherie_
- **leader title1**: Chief of state
- **leader name1**: Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II, Duke of Normandy
- **leader title2**: Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey, Lt Governor
- **leader name2**: Peter Walker (RAF officer), Peter Walker
- **leader title3**: List of tenants of Herm, Tenants
- **leader name3**: John and Julia Singer
- **area km2**: 2
- **area sq mi**: 0.77
- **percent water**: negligible
- **population census**: 60
- **population census year**: 2002
- **population density km2**: 30
- **population density sq mi**: 77.7
- **currency**: Pound sterling<sup>a</sup>
- **currency code**: GBP
- **time zone**: GMT
- **utc offset**: +0
- **time zone dst**: Western European Summer Time, WEST
- **utc offset dst**: +1
- **cctld**: .gg
- **footnote a**: The States of Guernsey, of which Herm is a dependency, issue their own Pound sterling, sterling coins and banknotes; see Guernsey pound.
|
**Herm** is the smallest of the Channel Islands that is open to the public.
Herm is only 1 miles long. Cars are banned from the small island just like its Channel Island neighbour, Sark. Unlike Sark, bicycles are banned too. The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise.
Population: 60 (2002).
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Herm
- **native name**: _Haerme_
- **common name**: Herm
- **image flag**: Flag of Herm.svg
- **image coat**: Blason Ile Herm.svg
- **alt coat**: Coat of arms
- **symbol type**: Coat of arms
- **image map**: Uk map guernsey.png
- **national motto**: none
- **national anthem**: _Sarnia Cherie_
- **leader title1**: Chief of state
- **leader name1**: Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II, Duke of Normandy
- **leader title2**: Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey, Lt Governor
- **leader name2**: Peter Walker (RAF officer), Peter Walker
- **leader title3**: List of tenants of Herm, Tenants
- **leader name3**: John and Julia Singer
- **area km2**: 2
- **area sq mi**: 0.77
- **percent water**: negligible
- **population census**: 60
- **population census year**: 2002
- **population density km2**: 30
- **population density sq mi**: 77.7
- **currency**: Pound sterling<sup>a</sup>
- **currency code**: GBP
- **time zone**: GMT
- **utc offset**: +0
- **time zone dst**: Western European Summer Time, WEST
- **utc offset dst**: +1
- **cctld**: .gg
- **footnote a**: The States of Guernsey, of which Herm is a dependency, issue their own Pound sterling, sterling coins and banknotes; see Guernsey pound.
|
low
| false
| false
|
324
|
History
|
**History** is the [study](475339) of past events. People know what happened in the past by looking at things _from_ the past including sources (like [book](3686)s, [newspaper](7665)s, scripts and [letter](6309)s), buildings and different types of artifacts (like [pottery](11616), [tool](158772)s, [coin](162)s and human or animal remains.) [Libraries](446), [archive](61296)s, and [museum](14057)s collect and keep these things for people to study history. A person who studies history is called a [historian](349). A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist. A person who studies mankind and [society](689) is called an anthropologist. The study of the sources and methods _used to study and write_ history is called [historiography](76817).
People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past. This is called [oral history](3867). For example, when people who had been [slaves](803) and [American Civil War](6418) survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost.
In old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. The rulers of Medieval [Europe](216), [Ancient Greece](13444), [Ancient Rome](24298) and [Ancient China](29263) each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the [world](6369) and that other parts were "[barbarian](47550)". But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it.
The term "_historically"_ is used to say that something has been a certain way during most of its history. For example, a historically female [university](884) is a university which has had a student body that was mostly or entirely female for most of its history.
## Types of history
- [History of the universe](1091191), a.k.a. Cosmological history or the Chronology of the universe
- History of Earth, a.k.a. Geological history
- History of life
- History of humans
## Timeline of human history
- Pre-history
- [Ancient history](26891)
- [Sumer](29287)
- [Ancient Egypt](15034)
- [Babylonia](24322)
- [Ancient Armenia](70973)
- [Ancient Greece](13444)
- Ancient India
- [Ancient China](29263) and [Japan](403), [Korea](2159), [Mongolia](17840)
- Ancient Southeast Asia - [Cambodia](8493) - [Thailand](10138) - [Indonesia](3334)
- Ancient North America - [Iroquois](284226), [Mohawk](765699), [Huron](314328), Haida, [Lenape](276776), [Mohican](208361), [Cree](699015), [Sioux](300851), [Inuit](1983), Dene
- Ancient Central America - [Aztecs](6013), Maya, Olmecs, Toltecs, Teotihuacan, Mixtecs
- Ancient South America - Inca, Chimu, Tihuanacu, Huari
- Ancient Africa
- [Ancient Australia](27136)
- [Roman Empire](664)
- Christian Rome - Justinian to the rise of [Byzantium](63578)
- Chinese Dynasties
- [Byzantine Empire](23811)
- Early Islamic Caliphate - [Muhammad](12702) to The Crusades
- [Early Middle Ages](26321) - end of European Dark Ages to rise of Roman Catholic Church
- [High Middle Ages](159528) and the Crusades - conflict with [Islam](219592), Cathars, pagan tribes in [Lithuania](4099), etc.
- Late Middle Ages - [13th century](15591) to [15th century](15589)
- Late Islamic Caliphate - to fall of Muslim Spain
- [Mongol Empire](54936)
- [Renaissance](25297) - 15th century renewal of [science](700) etc., based on texts from Ancient Greece and Roman Empire that were preserved by Muslims and captured by Christians
- [European colonization of the Americas](31687) - 15th century impact on America
- [Spanish Empire](64135)
- [British Empire](23677)
- Baroque era - mid [16th century](14230) to mid-late [18th century](12978)
- Conflict of [Ottoman Empire](16844) with [Austria-Hungary](40951)
- Rise of the [Qing Dynasty](31459) in China
- [Enlightenment](68849) - mid [17th century](12979) to late [18th century](12978)
- [19th century](3978)
- [British Empire](23677)
- [20th century](3407)
- [History of Australia](342) since colonizing [Australia](27)
- [History of the United States](101169)
- [Modern History](183483) and origins of modern world power structure
- [World War I](219834)
- [World War II](219837)
- United Nations ascendance - how it became so central.
- [Chinese Revolution](30924), [Partition of India](29359), North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
- US-Soviet [Cold War](1949) including [Korean War](7537), [Vietnam War](4536), Soviet-Afghan War
- Recent conflicts in the Muslim World - [Arab-Israeli Wars](257429), US invasion of Afghanistan, [US invasion of Iraq](30013)
- Recent conflicts in West Africa - [Uganda](15518), [Chad](11542), [Rwanda](15939), [Congo](19598), [Liberia](12333), [Ivory Coast](4831), and so on
Current events, modern economic history, modern social history and modern intellectual history take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today.
- [Russian invasion of Ukraine](909165)
- Israel–Hamas war
- Red Sea Crisis
## Related pages
- [List of historians](4554)
- [World History](437587)
- [Political economy](50952)
- [Historical novel](409735)
|
**History** is the study of past events. People know what happened in the past by looking at things _from_ the past including sources (like books, newspapers, scripts and letters), buildings and different types of artifacts (like pottery, tools, coins and human or animal remains.) Libraries, archives, and museums collect and keep these things for people to study history. A person who studies history is called a historian. A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist. A person who studies mankind and society is called an anthropologist. The study of the sources and methods _used to study and write_ history is called historiography.
People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past. This is called oral history. For example, when people who had been slaves and American Civil War survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost.
In old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. The rulers of Medieval Europe, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Ancient China each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were "barbarian". But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it.
The term "_historically"_ is used to say that something has been a certain way during most of its history. For example, a historically female university is a university which has had a student body that was mostly or entirely female for most of its history.
## Types of history
- History of the universe, a.k.a. Cosmological history or the Chronology of the universe
- History of Earth, a.k.a. Geological history
- History of life
- History of humans
## Timeline of human history
- Pre-history
- Ancient history
- Sumer
- Ancient Egypt
- Babylonia
- Ancient Armenia
- Ancient Greece
- Ancient India
- Ancient China and Japan, Korea, Mongolia
- Ancient Southeast Asia - Cambodia - Thailand - Indonesia
- Ancient North America - Iroquois, Mohawk, Huron, Haida, Lenape, Mohican, Cree, Sioux, Inuit, Dene
- Ancient Central America - Aztecs, Maya, Olmecs, Toltecs, Teotihuacan, Mixtecs
- Ancient South America - Inca, Chimu, Tihuanacu, Huari
- Ancient Africa
- Ancient Australia
- Roman Empire
- Christian Rome - Justinian to the rise of Byzantium
- Chinese Dynasties
- Byzantine Empire
- Early Islamic Caliphate - Muhammad to The Crusades
- Early Middle Ages - end of European Dark Ages to rise of Roman Catholic Church
- High Middle Ages and the Crusades - conflict with Islam, Cathars, pagan tribes in Lithuania, etc.
- Late Middle Ages - 13th century to 15th century
- Late Islamic Caliphate - to fall of Muslim Spain
- Mongol Empire
- Renaissance - 15th century renewal of science etc., based on texts from Ancient Greece and Roman Empire that were preserved by Muslims and captured by Christians
- European colonization of the Americas - 15th century impact on America
- Spanish Empire
- British Empire
- Baroque era - mid 16th century to mid-late 18th century
- Conflict of Ottoman Empire with Austria-Hungary
- Rise of the Qing Dynasty in China
- Enlightenment - mid 17th century to late 18th century
- 19th century
- British Empire
- 20th century
- History of Australia since colonizing Australia
- History of the United States
- Modern History and origins of modern world power structure
- World War I
- World War II
- United Nations ascendance - how it became so central.
- Chinese Revolution, Partition of India, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
- US-Soviet Cold War including Korean War, Vietnam War, Soviet-Afghan War
- Recent conflicts in the Muslim World - Arab-Israeli Wars, US invasion of Afghanistan, US invasion of Iraq
- Recent conflicts in West Africa - Uganda, Chad, Rwanda, Congo, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and so on
Current events, modern economic history, modern social history and modern intellectual history take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today.
- Russian invasion of Ukraine
- Israel–Hamas war
- Red Sea Crisis
## Related pages
- List of historians
- World History
- Political economy
- Historical novel
|
high
| false
| false
|
325
|
Health
|
**Health** is a state of complete [physical](24909), mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of [disease](4874) according to the [World Health Organization](24773) (WHO). _Physical_ health is about the body. _Mental_ health is about how people think and feel. _Social_ health talks about how people live with other people. It is about [family](3284), work, [school](118745), and friends.
### Physical health
Physical fitness refers to good [body](353) health. It is dependent on [genetic](10956) determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors. That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or [polluted your water](417748) and the [air](226886) around you is and also how good your social and medical system is. It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and [nutrition](107489), and proper rest for physical recovery. A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help. How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman.
A physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height. The relation between their height and weight is called their [Body Mass Index](71658). A taller person can be heavier and still be fit. If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health. Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people.
### Mental health
Mental health refers to a person's [emotion](20124)al and [psychological](6204) well-being. "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in [society](689), and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life."
One way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions. Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health. It’s normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time to time. For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems. However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
### Public health
[Public health](245876) refers to trying to stop a [disease](4874) that is unhealthy to the [community](17207), and does not help in living a long life or promote your health. This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of [society](689), [public](733341) and private clubs, communities and individuals.
It is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person. Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases. To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice: [Hand washing](6341), regular check-ups, [vaccination](13421) programmes, drinking [clean water](7082), and using [condom](6678)s. When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease. Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and childbirth, is also very important.
## Related pages
- [Medicine](3793)
- [Healthy lifestyle](266316)
- [Fitness](234174)
- [Right to health](923389)
|
**Health** is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease according to the World Health Organization (WHO). _Physical_ health is about the body. _Mental_ health is about how people think and feel. _Social_ health talks about how people live with other people. It is about family, work, school, and friends.
### Physical health
Physical fitness refers to good body health. It is dependent on genetic determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors. That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or polluted your water and the air around you is and also how good your social and medical system is. It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery. A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help. How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman.
A physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height. The relation between their height and weight is called their Body Mass Index. A taller person can be heavier and still be fit. If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health. Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people.
### Mental health
Mental health refers to a person's emotional and psychological well-being. "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life."
One way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions. Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health. It’s normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time to time. For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems. However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
### Public health
Public health refers to trying to stop a disease that is unhealthy to the community, and does not help in living a long life or promote your health. This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of society, public and private clubs, communities and individuals.
It is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person. Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases. To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice: Hand washing, regular check-ups, vaccination programmes, drinking clean water, and using condoms. When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease. Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and childbirth, is also very important.
## Related pages
- Medicine
- Healthy lifestyle
- Fitness
- Right to health
|
high
| false
| false
|
326
|
Harbor
|
A **harbor** ([American English](28)) or **harbour** ([British English](83)) is a place where [ship](5816)s may shelter. Some harbors are used as [port](335080)<nowiki/>s to load and unload ships. The port will have quays or [pier](134376)s where the ships may be tied up and a [transport](3794) system for taking goods inland. Often railway and road transport will be used. Goods also move by [pipeline](9441) transport and by smaller ships on rivers.
Harbor means to shelter or keep safe. Harbors can be natural as in [San Francisco](11481) or artificial as in ancient [Carthage](24275) or a mix of both. During the D-Day operations of [1944](10261), two artificial harbors (named mulberry) were built just off the [beach](4444)es where the invasion was happening.
## Related pages
- [Dock](38033)
- [Marina](1003222)
- [Naval base](704024)
- Quay
- Seaport
- [Transport](3794)
- [Wharf](36623)
|
A **harbor** (American English) or **harbour** (British English) is a place where ships may shelter. Some harbors are used as port<nowiki/>s to load and unload ships. The port will have quays or piers where the ships may be tied up and a transport system for taking goods inland. Often railway and road transport will be used. Goods also move by pipeline transport and by smaller ships on rivers.
Harbor means to shelter or keep safe. Harbors can be natural as in San Francisco or artificial as in ancient Carthage or a mix of both. During the D-Day operations of 1944, two artificial harbors (named mulberry) were built just off the beaches where the invasion was happening.
## Related pages
- Dock
- Marina
- Naval base
- Quay
- Seaport
- Transport
- Wharf
|
unknown
| false
| false
|
332
|
Hawaii
|
**Hawaii** () is a [U.S. state](342544) and the only U.S. State that is in [Oceania](2032). It is the most recent state to join the [United States](219587), becoming a state on August 21, 1959. It is the only state made only of [island](367)s. Hawaii is also the name of the largest island. The capital and largest city of Hawaii is Honolulu on the island named [Oahu](573).
## Name
Hawaii is known as the "Aloha State". _Aloha_ is a [Hawaiian](15039) word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye. Aloha also means love and care. The different meanings are brought together in the term "Aloha Spirit" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii.
## Geography
Hawaii is an [archipelago](9157), a long chain of islands. There are eight main islands and many small islands and [atoll](109298)s. They are the tops of underwater [volcano](4483)s. The main islands are [Niihau](535), [Kauai](412), [Oahu](573), Molokai, [Lanai](433), Kahoolawe, [Maui](477) and [Hawaii](335).
## History
The first people of Hawaii were Polynesians. They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD. [Captain](51838) [James Cook](19761) discovered the islands in 1778. Others may have been there before him. Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montague.
[Kamehameha I](606494) was the first [king](410) of Hawaii. He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in 1795. In 1893, American soldiers stopped Queen Liliuokalani from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws. She was the last [monarch](3601) of Hawaii. She also wrote the original words of the song called _Aloha Oe_.
The Americans made Hawaii into a [republic](4978) for a short time. The new leader, [Sanford Dole](15033) was called the President of Hawaii. In 1898, the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a [territory](156768).In 1907, [University of Hawaiʻi](96050) is established. In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth American state. In other words, it was taken ("annexed") against the wishes of its native people. Their queen, Lili’uokalani, wrote that “it had not entered into our hearts to believe that these friends and allies from the United States... would ever go so far as to absolutely overthrow our form of government, seize our nation by the throat, and pass it over to an alien power”.
### Reason for statehood
Early in [World War II](219837) the U.S. Pacific Fleet was based on the [Philippines](5103). Perceiving that this was not safe, the navy moved its base to the Hawaiian islands, namely [Oahu](573) (the main island in the chain). It was there that the Japanese attacked [Pearl Harbor](11415). That was significant in the later discussions about the future of the islands.
## Economy
The biggest [industry](166202) of Hawaii is [tourism](9185). Almost seven million people visited in 2000. Important [export](14061)s are [sugar](9642), [pineapple](15719), [macadamia nut](476)s, and [coffee](4715).
Popular tourist sites include Waikiki Beach, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Polynesian Cultural Center, and the [USS Arizona Memorial](48173) at Pearl Harbor.
## State symbols
The state [flower](7947) is the yellow [hibiscus](12825) (_Hibiscus brackenridgei_ or ). The state [bird](3707) is the Hawaiian goose (nene). The state [fish](285) is the [reef triggerfish](746515), also called the **'. The state [tree](847) is the candlenut, also called _kukui_. The state [song](9460) is [Hawaii Ponoi](337). The state [motto](124211) is **'. In English it says, _The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness_.
## References
**Notes**
## Infobox (u.s. state)
- **name**: Hawaii
- **official name**: State of Hawaii
<div style="padding-top:0.25em;"></div>
- **native name**: <div style="padding-top:0.25em;"></div>
- **image flag**: Flag of Hawaii.svg
- **flag link**: Flag of Hawaii
- **image seal**: Seal of the State of Hawaii.svg
- **seal link**: Seal of Hawaii
- **former**: Territory of Hawaii
- **image map**: File:Hawaii in United States (US50) (+grid) (zoom) (W3).svg
- **nickname**: The Aloha State (official), Paradise of the Pacific, The Islands of Aloha, The 808 State
- **motto**: ("The Life of the Land Is Perpetuated in Righteousness")
- **anthem**: (Hawaii's Own True Sons)
- **seat**: Honolulu
- **largestcity**: capital
- **largestmetro**: Honolulu County, Hawaii, Honolulu
- **population demonym**: Hawaii resident, Hawaiian
- **legislature**: Hawaii State Legislature, State Legislature
- **upperhouse**: Hawaii Senate, Senate
- **lowerhouse**: Hawaii House of Representatives, House of Representatives
- **judiciary**: Supreme Court of Hawaii
- **representative**: Hawaii's 1st congressional district, 1: Ed Case (D)Hawaii's 2nd congressional district, 2: Jill Tokuda (D)
- **postal code**: HI
- **tradabbreviation**: H.I.
- **area total sq mi**: 10,931
- **area total km2**: 28,311
- **area land sq mi**: 6,423
- **area land km2**: 16,638
- **area water sq mi**: 4,507
- **area water km2**: 11,672
- **area water percent**: 41.2
- **population as of**: 2020
- **population rank**: 40th
- **2010pop**: 1,455,271
- **2000density**: 82.6
- **2000densityus**: 221
- **medianhouseholdincome**: $
- **incomerank**: List of U.S. states and territories by income#States and territories ranked by median household income, 6th
- **timezone1**: Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone, Hawaii
- **utc offset1**: −10:00
- **longitude**: 154° 48′ W to 178° 22′ W
- **latitude**: 18° 55′ N to 28° 27′ N
- **length mi**: 1,522
- **width mi**: n/a
- **width km**: n/a
- **length km**: 2,450
- **elevation max point**: Mauna Kea
- **elevation max ft**: 13,796
- **elevation max m**: 4205.0
- **elevation ft**: 3,030
- **elevation m**: 920
- **elevation min point**: Pacific Ocean
- **elevation min ft**: 0
- **elevation min m**: 0
- **iso code**: US-HI
- **website**: hawaii.gov
- **capital**: Honolulu
## Infobox (u.s. state symbols)
- **name**: Hawaii
- **flag**: Flag of Hawaii.svg
- **seal**: Seal of Hawaii.svg
- **tree**: Candlenut, tree
- **dance**: Hula
- **food**: Taro, (taro)
- **gemstone**: Black coral, (black coral)
- **other**: Surfing, (surfing) (state individual sport)
- **route marker**: HI-11.svg
- **quarter**: 2008 HI Proof.png
- **quarterreleasedate**: 2008
|
**Hawaii** () is a U.S. state and the only U.S. State that is in Oceania. It is the most recent state to join the United States, becoming a state on August 21, 1959. It is the only state made only of islands. Hawaii is also the name of the largest island. The capital and largest city of Hawaii is Honolulu on the island named Oahu.
## Name
Hawaii is known as the "Aloha State". _Aloha_ is a Hawaiian word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye. Aloha also means love and care. The different meanings are brought together in the term "Aloha Spirit" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii.
## Geography
Hawaii is an archipelago, a long chain of islands. There are eight main islands and many small islands and atolls. They are the tops of underwater volcanos. The main islands are Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui and Hawaii.
## History
The first people of Hawaii were Polynesians. They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD. Captain James Cook discovered the islands in 1778. Others may have been there before him. Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montague.
Kamehameha I was the first king of Hawaii. He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in 1795. In 1893, American soldiers stopped Queen Liliuokalani from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws. She was the last monarch of Hawaii. She also wrote the original words of the song called _Aloha Oe_.
The Americans made Hawaii into a republic for a short time. The new leader, Sanford Dole was called the President of Hawaii. In 1898, the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a territory.In 1907, University of Hawaiʻi is established. In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth American state. In other words, it was taken ("annexed") against the wishes of its native people. Their queen, Lili’uokalani, wrote that “it had not entered into our hearts to believe that these friends and allies from the United States... would ever go so far as to absolutely overthrow our form of government, seize our nation by the throat, and pass it over to an alien power”.
### Reason for statehood
Early in World War II the U.S. Pacific Fleet was based on the Philippines. Perceiving that this was not safe, the navy moved its base to the Hawaiian islands, namely Oahu (the main island in the chain). It was there that the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. That was significant in the later discussions about the future of the islands.
## Economy
The biggest industry of Hawaii is tourism. Almost seven million people visited in 2000. Important exports are sugar, pineapple, macadamia nuts, and coffee.
Popular tourist sites include Waikiki Beach, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Polynesian Cultural Center, and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor.
## State symbols
The state flower is the yellow hibiscus (_Hibiscus brackenridgei_ or ). The state bird is the Hawaiian goose (nene). The state fish is the reef triggerfish, also called the **'. The state tree is the candlenut, also called _kukui_. The state song is Hawaii Ponoi. The state motto is **'. In English it says, _The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness_.
## References
**Notes**
## Infobox (u.s. state)
- **name**: Hawaii
- **official name**: State of Hawaii
<div style="padding-top:0.25em;"></div>
- **native name**: <div style="padding-top:0.25em;"></div>
- **image flag**: Flag of Hawaii.svg
- **flag link**: Flag of Hawaii
- **image seal**: Seal of the State of Hawaii.svg
- **seal link**: Seal of Hawaii
- **former**: Territory of Hawaii
- **image map**: File:Hawaii in United States (US50) (+grid) (zoom) (W3).svg
- **nickname**: The Aloha State (official), Paradise of the Pacific, The Islands of Aloha, The 808 State
- **motto**: ("The Life of the Land Is Perpetuated in Righteousness")
- **anthem**: (Hawaii's Own True Sons)
- **seat**: Honolulu
- **largestcity**: capital
- **largestmetro**: Honolulu County, Hawaii, Honolulu
- **population demonym**: Hawaii resident, Hawaiian
- **legislature**: Hawaii State Legislature, State Legislature
- **upperhouse**: Hawaii Senate, Senate
- **lowerhouse**: Hawaii House of Representatives, House of Representatives
- **judiciary**: Supreme Court of Hawaii
- **representative**: Hawaii's 1st congressional district, 1: Ed Case (D)Hawaii's 2nd congressional district, 2: Jill Tokuda (D)
- **postal code**: HI
- **tradabbreviation**: H.I.
- **area total sq mi**: 10,931
- **area total km2**: 28,311
- **area land sq mi**: 6,423
- **area land km2**: 16,638
- **area water sq mi**: 4,507
- **area water km2**: 11,672
- **area water percent**: 41.2
- **population as of**: 2020
- **population rank**: 40th
- **2010pop**: 1,455,271
- **2000density**: 82.6
- **2000densityus**: 221
- **medianhouseholdincome**: $
- **incomerank**: List of U.S. states and territories by income#States and territories ranked by median household income, 6th
- **timezone1**: Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone, Hawaii
- **utc offset1**: −10:00
- **longitude**: 154° 48′ W to 178° 22′ W
- **latitude**: 18° 55′ N to 28° 27′ N
- **length mi**: 1,522
- **width mi**: n/a
- **width km**: n/a
- **length km**: 2,450
- **elevation max point**: Mauna Kea
- **elevation max ft**: 13,796
- **elevation max m**: 4205.0
- **elevation ft**: 3,030
- **elevation m**: 920
- **elevation min point**: Pacific Ocean
- **elevation min ft**: 0
- **elevation min m**: 0
- **iso code**: US-HI
- **website**: hawaii.gov
- **capital**: Honolulu
## Infobox (u.s. state symbols)
- **name**: Hawaii
- **flag**: Flag of Hawaii.svg
- **seal**: Seal of Hawaii.svg
- **tree**: Candlenut, tree
- **dance**: Hula
- **food**: Taro, (taro)
- **gemstone**: Black coral, (black coral)
- **other**: Surfing, (surfing) (state individual sport)
- **route marker**: HI-11.svg
- **quarter**: 2008 HI Proof.png
- **quarterreleasedate**: 2008
|
high
| false
| false
|
333
|
Honolulu
|
**Honolulu** is the capital [city](144) of the [U.S. state](342544) of [Hawaii](332). It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important [harbor](326). It is on the south-east shore of the island of [Oahu](573).
## Etymology
Honolulu means "sheltered harbor" in the Hawaiian language. No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used.
## History
Honolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came. The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794. He named the harbor Fair Haven. Other foreign captains started calling it Brown's Harbor. The name Honolulu was used some time after that.
Honolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii. At that time, [sandalwood](141318) was a big export. Honolulu was also an important supply point for [whaler](7821)s.
Kamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1850. It was also the capital of the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii. It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959.
## Notable people
- [Barack Obama](223430), 44th [President of the United States](7174), was born in Honolulu
- [Bette Midler](282671), actress and singer, was born in Honolulu
- [Nicole Kidman](5689), actress and singer, was born in Honolulu
- [Nicole Scherzinger](76781), singer, was born in Honolulu
- [Jason Momoa](460543), actor, was born in Honolulu, currently lives in Honolulu
- [Bruno Mars](287451), singer, was born in Honolulu
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Honolulu
- **official name**: City and County of Honolulu
- **nickname**: Crossroads of the Pacific, Sheltered Bay, HNL, The Big Pineapple, Paradise
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital city
- **motto**: _Haaheo No O Honolulu_ (_The Pride of Honolulu_)
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **image caption**: **Clockwise from top**: Downtown Honolulu, downtown; Pearl Harbor; statue of King Kamehameha I in front of Aliiolani Hale downtown; Diamond Head, Hawaii, Diamond Head; waterfront on Waikīkī, Waikīkī Beach; and ʻIolani Palace
- **image flag**: Flag of Honolulu, Hawaii.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Honolulu, Hawaii.svg
- **image map**: Honolulu County Hawaii Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Honolulu Highlighted.svg
- **map caption**: Urban Honolulu and East Honolulu CDPs (combined) in Honolulu County, Hawaii, Honolulu County and the state of Hawaii
- **map caption1**: Interactive map of Honolulu
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Hawaii
- **subdivision type2**: County (United States), County
- **subdivision name2**: Honolulu County, Hawaii, Honolulu
- **established title**: Municipal incorporation, Incorporated
- **total type**: City
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 177.2
- **area land km2**: 156.7
- **area urban km2**: 375.5
- **area water km2**: 20.5
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 350,964 (List of United States cities by population, US: 56th)
- **population urban**: 853,252 (List of United States urban areas, US: 54th)
- **population density urban km2**: 2,272.4
- **population density km2**: 2236.1
- **population metro**: 1016508 (Metropolitan statistical area, US: 54th)
- **population density metro km2**: auto
- **population demonym**: Honolulan
- **timezone**: Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone, Hawaiian (HST)
- **utc offset**: −10:00
- **elevation m**: 5
- **elevation ft**: 16
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 96801–96850
- **area code**: Area code 808, 808
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 15-17000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 366212
|
**Honolulu** is the capital city of the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important harbor. It is on the south-east shore of the island of Oahu.
## Etymology
Honolulu means "sheltered harbor" in the Hawaiian language. No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used.
## History
Honolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came. The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794. He named the harbor Fair Haven. Other foreign captains started calling it Brown's Harbor. The name Honolulu was used some time after that.
Honolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii. At that time, sandalwood was a big export. Honolulu was also an important supply point for whalers.
Kamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1850. It was also the capital of the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii. It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959.
## Notable people
- Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, was born in Honolulu
- Bette Midler, actress and singer, was born in Honolulu
- Nicole Kidman, actress and singer, was born in Honolulu
- Nicole Scherzinger, singer, was born in Honolulu
- Jason Momoa, actor, was born in Honolulu, currently lives in Honolulu
- Bruno Mars, singer, was born in Honolulu
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Honolulu
- **official name**: City and County of Honolulu
- **nickname**: Crossroads of the Pacific, Sheltered Bay, HNL, The Big Pineapple, Paradise
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital city
- **motto**: _Haaheo No O Honolulu_ (_The Pride of Honolulu_)
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **image caption**: **Clockwise from top**: Downtown Honolulu, downtown; Pearl Harbor; statue of King Kamehameha I in front of Aliiolani Hale downtown; Diamond Head, Hawaii, Diamond Head; waterfront on Waikīkī, Waikīkī Beach; and ʻIolani Palace
- **image flag**: Flag of Honolulu, Hawaii.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Honolulu, Hawaii.svg
- **image map**: Honolulu County Hawaii Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Honolulu Highlighted.svg
- **map caption**: Urban Honolulu and East Honolulu CDPs (combined) in Honolulu County, Hawaii, Honolulu County and the state of Hawaii
- **map caption1**: Interactive map of Honolulu
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Hawaii
- **subdivision type2**: County (United States), County
- **subdivision name2**: Honolulu County, Hawaii, Honolulu
- **established title**: Municipal incorporation, Incorporated
- **total type**: City
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 177.2
- **area land km2**: 156.7
- **area urban km2**: 375.5
- **area water km2**: 20.5
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 350,964 (List of United States cities by population, US: 56th)
- **population urban**: 853,252 (List of United States urban areas, US: 54th)
- **population density urban km2**: 2,272.4
- **population density km2**: 2236.1
- **population metro**: 1016508 (Metropolitan statistical area, US: 54th)
- **population density metro km2**: auto
- **population demonym**: Honolulan
- **timezone**: Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone, Hawaiian (HST)
- **utc offset**: −10:00
- **elevation m**: 5
- **elevation ft**: 16
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 96801–96850
- **area code**: Area code 808, 808
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 15-17000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 366212
|
high
| false
| false
|
335
|
Hawaii (island)
|
The **Island of Hawaiʻi** is the largest [U.S.](219587) [Hawaiian Island](3797), and it is the farthest south. It is also called the "Big Island." Its area is 4,038 sq. miles (10,458 km2). The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across.
The Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of [State of Hawaii](332). It is part of [County of Hawaii](658421).
The island is seven separate [shield volcano](61899)s that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. These are (from oldest to youngest): [Kohala](778998) (extinct), [Mauna Kea](3798) ([dormant](349158)), Hualalai (dormant), [Mauna Loa](3799) (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and [Kilauea](3800) (very active). The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a [hotspot](252622). There [lava](25307) from the Earth's lower [mantle](60875) or upper [core](283094) is close to the surface.
The largest city on the island is Hilo. Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events. It is on the rainy, east side of the [island](367). The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists.
## References
- MacDonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott. 1970. _Volcanoes in the Sea_. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 441 p.
- History and culture of Hilo. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.hiloliving.com/Hilo_Culture.html
|
The **Island of Hawaiʻi** is the largest U.S. Hawaiian Island, and it is the farthest south. It is also called the "Big Island." Its area is 4,038 sq. miles (10,458 km2). The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across.
The Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of State of Hawaii. It is part of County of Hawaii.
The island is seven separate shield volcanos that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. These are (from oldest to youngest): Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Hualalai (dormant), Mauna Loa (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and Kilauea (very active). The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a hotspot. There lava from the Earth's lower mantle or upper core is close to the surface.
The largest city on the island is Hilo. Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events. It is on the rainy, east side of the island. The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists.
## References
- MacDonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott. 1970. _Volcanoes in the Sea_. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 441 p.
- History and culture of Hilo. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.hiloliving.com/Hilo_Culture.html
|
medium
| false
| false
|
337
|
Hawaii Ponoi
|
"**Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī**" (; "Hawai's Sons") is the state song of [Hawaii](332). The words were written by King David Kalakaua, the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. "Hawai`i Ponoi" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i.
## Lyrics
|[Hawaiian](15039) original|[IPA](52427) transcription|English translation|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem></poem>|<poem></poem>|<poem>Hawaii's own true sons, Loyal to thy king be. Thine only ruling chief, Thy liege and lord. <small>**Chorus:**</small> _Royal father,_ _Kamehameha._ _We shall defend,_ _With the spear._ Hawaii's own true sons, Honor give to thy chiefs, Of kindred race are we, Younger descent. <small>***Chorus***</small> Hawaii's own true sons, People of this our land, Duty calls fealty, Guide in the right. <small>***Chorus***</small></poem>|
## Infobox (anthem)
- **title**: Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī
- **english title**: Hawai's Sons
- **image**: Cover of Hawaii Ponoi1.jpg
- **prefix**: State
- **country**: Hawaii
- **author**: Kalākaua
- **composer**: Henry Berger
- **adopted**: 1874 (as national anthem of Hawaiian Kingdom)
1967 (as Hawaii state song)
- **until**: 1893 (as national anthem of Hawaiian Kingdom)
- **sound title**: Hawaiʻi ponoʻī
|
"**Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī**" (; "Hawai's Sons") is the state song of Hawaii. The words were written by King David Kalakaua, the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. "Hawai`i Ponoi" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i.
## Lyrics
|Hawaiian original|IPA transcription|English translation|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem></poem>|<poem></poem>|<poem>Hawaii's own true sons, Loyal to thy king be. Thine only ruling chief, Thy liege and lord. <small>**Chorus:**</small> _Royal father,_ _Kamehameha._ _We shall defend,_ _With the spear._ Hawaii's own true sons, Honor give to thy chiefs, Of kindred race are we, Younger descent. <small>***Chorus***</small> Hawaii's own true sons, People of this our land, Duty calls fealty, Guide in the right. <small>***Chorus***</small></poem>|
## Infobox (anthem)
- **title**: Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī
- **english title**: Hawai's Sons
- **image**: Cover of Hawaii Ponoi1.jpg
- **prefix**: State
- **country**: Hawaii
- **author**: Kalākaua
- **composer**: Henry Berger
- **adopted**: 1874 (as national anthem of Hawaiian Kingdom)
1967 (as Hawaii state song)
- **until**: 1893 (as national anthem of Hawaiian Kingdom)
- **sound title**: Hawaiʻi ponoʻī
|
medium
| false
| false
|
338
|
Healing
|
**Healing** is a process that happens in the [body](4361). Through healing, [cell](130418)s are able to repair damaged tissue.
There are two different ways healing can happen:
- The damaged tissue is replaced with tissue of the same kind. This is called _regeneration_.
- The damaged tissue is replaced with [scar](20799) tissue. This is called _repair_
Most healing processes combine both ways of healing.
## Other websites
- [How wounds heal and tumors form](http://www.childrenshospital.org/cfapps/research/data_admin/Site97/mainpageS97P5.html) With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop. Presented by Children's Hospital Boston.
- [Wound Healing](http://www.orthoteers.co.uk/Nrujp~ij33lm/Orthwound.htm)
- [Wound Healing and Repair](http://www.emedicine.com/plastic/topic411.htm)
- Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T. [Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management](http://recon.stanford.edu/Articles/LorenzWH.pdf) . Stanford University Medical Center.
- Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003. [Wound Healing, Skin](http://www.emedicine.com/ent/topic13.htm). Emedicine.com.
- Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003. [Wound Healing, Growth Factors](http://www.emedicine.com/plastic/topic457.htm). Emedicine.com.
|
**Healing** is a process that happens in the body. Through healing, cells are able to repair damaged tissue.
There are two different ways healing can happen:
- The damaged tissue is replaced with tissue of the same kind. This is called _regeneration_.
- The damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue. This is called _repair_
Most healing processes combine both ways of healing.
## Other websites
- How wounds heal and tumors form With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop. Presented by Children's Hospital Boston.
- Wound Healing
- Wound Healing and Repair
- Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T. Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management . Stanford University Medical Center.
- Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003. Wound Healing, Skin. Emedicine.com.
- Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003. Wound Healing, Growth Factors. Emedicine.com.
|
high
| false
| false
|
342
|
History of Australia
|
People have lived in [Australia](27) for over 65,000 years. The first people who arrived in Australia were the Aboriginals and the [Torres Strait Islanders](104467). They lived in all parts of Australia. They lived by [hunting](33836), [fishing](10000) and gathering.
Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders invented tools like the [boomerang](43823), [spear](22902), and there is evidence that they used farming methods. Tradition was very important in their lives. Their religion is called the [Dreamtime](27137), which has lots of stories about the creation of the world by spirits. [Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander art](141608) started at least 30,000 years ago and there are lots of Dreaming stories painted on walls and cut in rocks all around Australia. [Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander music](342883) has songs about the Dreamtime, sometimes with special instruments like the [didgeridoo](127777).
In 1606 the first European, [Dutch](3463) explorer [Willem Janszoon](644527), visited the west. [Luís Vaz de Torres](648876) sailed through the water between Australia and [New Guinea](31570) later that year. Only after Dirk Hartog chanced upon the west coast in 1616 did other European vessels visit and map the coast. After sixty more ships visited the coast, enough was known for a map to be published in 1811. The land was dry because of not much rain; some was a [desert](14509). The explorers thought no [crop](11502)s could be grown and so it would be difficult for people to live there. They decided there would be no [economic](246) reasons to stay.
In 1642, Dutchman [Abel Tasman](6354), working for the [Dutch East India Company](112921) reached [Tasmania](7482), which he called Antony van Diemenslandt. He then called the continent he charted the north coast of on his second visit in 1644 New Holland. In 1688, [William Dampier](558831) became the first Englishman to reach Australia. But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain [James Cook](19761), found the fertile east coast of Australia. He called it [New South Wales](18812), and claimed it for Britain. Englishman [Matthew Flinders](648755) published his map of the coast in 1814, calling it [Australia](27) for the first time, a name later formally adopted by the authorities.
## Colonial Australia
The British decided to use the land visited by [James Cook](19761) as a prison colony. Britain needed a place to send its [convict](124308)s (people who had been sent to [jail](1932) for [theft](853) and other [crime](151)s) because its gaols were full and it had just lost the [Thirteen Colonies](48472) in the [American Revolutionary War](17692). In 1788 the British [First Fleet](124097) of 11 ships, carrying about 1500 people arrived at [Botany Bay](342687). [Arthur Phillip](121384) led them as the first [Governor of New South Wales](250607). About 160 000 convicts were brought to Australia from 1788 until 1868. Free immigrants began arriving in the 1790s.
For the first few years they did not have much [food](280), and life was very hard. But soon they began to [farm](294), and more people came. Sydney grew, and new towns were started. [Wool](11125) brought good money. By 1822, many towns had been set up and people from the towns often visited Sydney for additional economic resources.
Soon people from [Sydney](4743) found other parts of Australia. [George Bass](751092) and [Matthew Flinders](648755) sailed south to [Tasmania](7482) and a colony was started at [Hobart](11264) in 1803. [Hamilton Hume](112897) and [William Hovell](115363) went south from Sydney by land. They found the [Murray River](112893), and good land in [Victoria](16520). [Thomas Mitchell](116734) went inland, and found more rivers. In 1826, the first British military outpost was set up at King George Sound in [Western Australia](37520). The [Swan River Colony](699984) was started in 1829, with townsites at [Fremantle](53595) and [Perth](15186). In 1836, a free-settler colony was started in [South Australia](37521), where no convicts were ever sent. [Queensland](36871) became a separate colony in 1859. As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were pushed off their land. Some were killed, and many died from [illness](4874) and hunger. Soon, Australia's Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders were outnumbered by Europeans, and many were made to live on reserves.
The goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the goldrushes had made some poor people very rich.
Convict transportation ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and self-govern. The first governments in the colonies were run by Governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. The [New South Wales Legislative Council](342744), was created in 1825 to advise the [Governor of New South Wales](250607), but it was not chosen by voters. [William Wentworth](342715) established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand [democratic government](97085) for New South Wales. In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were started and some people could vote for them (but only men with a certain amount of money). Then, Australia's first [parliament](4075)ary elections were held for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. _The Australian Colonies Government Act_ [1850] allowed constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1850 elections for legislative councils were also held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
In 1855, limited self-government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. A new [secret ballot](463523) was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, allowing people to vote in private. This system was copied around the world. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in [South Australia](37521). The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the [Parliament of South Australia](342747) in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections. In 1897, [Catherine Spence](243339) became the first female political candidate.
Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament. So in January 1901, the [Constitution of Australia](253434) came into effect.
In the [21st century](3979), [Julia Gillard](252340) became Australia’s first female [Deputy Prime Minister](663723) in 2007, and the first unmarried female [Prime Minister of Australia](21697) in 2010.
## Other websites
- [History of the Australian nation – State Library of NSW](http://www.atmitchell.com/journeys/history/)
- The [Australian History](http://gutenberg.net.au/aust-history.html) page at [Project Gutenberg of Australia](http://gutenberg.net.au)
- [Bush Poetry a source of Australian History](http://www.bushpoetry.org.au/)
- [An Aborigine on his understanding of tradition](http://www.brueckenbach.net/blog/index.php?/archives/61-Versuch-zur-Voelkerverstaendigung-6-Know-what-Im-sayin.html)
|
People have lived in Australia for over 65,000 years. The first people who arrived in Australia were the Aboriginals and the Torres Strait Islanders. They lived in all parts of Australia. They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering.
Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders invented tools like the boomerang, spear, and there is evidence that they used farming methods. Tradition was very important in their lives. Their religion is called the Dreamtime, which has lots of stories about the creation of the world by spirits. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander art started at least 30,000 years ago and there are lots of Dreaming stories painted on walls and cut in rocks all around Australia. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander music has songs about the Dreamtime, sometimes with special instruments like the didgeridoo.
In 1606 the first European, Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon, visited the west. Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through the water between Australia and New Guinea later that year. Only after Dirk Hartog chanced upon the west coast in 1616 did other European vessels visit and map the coast. After sixty more ships visited the coast, enough was known for a map to be published in 1811. The land was dry because of not much rain; some was a desert. The explorers thought no crops could be grown and so it would be difficult for people to live there. They decided there would be no economic reasons to stay.
In 1642, Dutchman Abel Tasman, working for the Dutch East India Company reached Tasmania, which he called Antony van Diemenslandt. He then called the continent he charted the north coast of on his second visit in 1644 New Holland. In 1688, William Dampier became the first Englishman to reach Australia. But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain James Cook, found the fertile east coast of Australia. He called it New South Wales, and claimed it for Britain. Englishman Matthew Flinders published his map of the coast in 1814, calling it Australia for the first time, a name later formally adopted by the authorities.
## Colonial Australia
The British decided to use the land visited by James Cook as a prison colony. Britain needed a place to send its convicts (people who had been sent to jail for theft and other crimes) because its gaols were full and it had just lost the Thirteen Colonies in the American Revolutionary War. In 1788 the British First Fleet of 11 ships, carrying about 1500 people arrived at Botany Bay. Arthur Phillip led them as the first Governor of New South Wales. About 160 000 convicts were brought to Australia from 1788 until 1868. Free immigrants began arriving in the 1790s.
For the first few years they did not have much food, and life was very hard. But soon they began to farm, and more people came. Sydney grew, and new towns were started. Wool brought good money. By 1822, many towns had been set up and people from the towns often visited Sydney for additional economic resources.
Soon people from Sydney found other parts of Australia. George Bass and Matthew Flinders sailed south to Tasmania and a colony was started at Hobart in 1803. Hamilton Hume and William Hovell went south from Sydney by land. They found the Murray River, and good land in Victoria. Thomas Mitchell went inland, and found more rivers. In 1826, the first British military outpost was set up at King George Sound in Western Australia. The Swan River Colony was started in 1829, with townsites at Fremantle and Perth. In 1836, a free-settler colony was started in South Australia, where no convicts were ever sent. Queensland became a separate colony in 1859. As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were pushed off their land. Some were killed, and many died from illness and hunger. Soon, Australia's Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders were outnumbered by Europeans, and many were made to live on reserves.
The goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the goldrushes had made some poor people very rich.
Convict transportation ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and self-govern. The first governments in the colonies were run by Governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. The New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 to advise the Governor of New South Wales, but it was not chosen by voters. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were started and some people could vote for them (but only men with a certain amount of money). Then, Australia's first parliamentary elections were held for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. _The Australian Colonies Government Act_ [1850] allowed constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1850 elections for legislative councils were also held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
In 1855, limited self-government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. A new secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, allowing people to vote in private. This system was copied around the world. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections. In 1897, Catherine Spence became the first female political candidate.
Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament. So in January 1901, the Constitution of Australia came into effect.
In the 21st century, Julia Gillard became Australia’s first female Deputy Prime Minister in 2007, and the first unmarried female Prime Minister of Australia in 2010.
## Other websites
- History of the Australian nation – State Library of NSW
- The Australian History page at Project Gutenberg of Australia
- Bush Poetry a source of Australian History
- An Aborigine on his understanding of tradition
|
medium
| false
| false
|
346
|
History of Spain
|
**Spain** is a [country](121) in [Europe](216).
## Early History
People have lived on the [Iberian Peninsula](51945) for about 500,000 years. [Neanderthal](102275) man came about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans first came about 40,000 years. Thousands of years ago Iberians and Celts lived there, and the Phoenicians made a few cities there to get [tin](19783) and [silver](4679) to trade.
The [Roman Empire](664) controlled Spain for three hundred years; then people from [Eastern Europe](45071) called [Visigoths](68689) fought for Spain, won it from the Romans, and controlled Spain for over two hundred years.
## Medieval times
The Visigoths converted from Arian Christianity to Roman Catholics. [Muslims](7410) who were Arab and [Berber](64391) invaded in 711 and conquered Spain in 718. They called it [Al-Andalus](115488). Roman Catholics eventually decided to fight to take Spain back from the Muslims. They fought wars called the [reconquista](137065) for more than seven hundred years. They also fought [Crusades](16026) against other [Christian](170)s like the Cathars. The Moors also fought each other for control of Al-Andalus.
In the year [1492](9455), they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors. Boabdil, the last Moorish Leader of [Granada](20279), gave the city to King Ferdinand of Aragon on 2 January [1492](9455), and Christians now ruled all of Spain.
Before this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, [Castile](64151) and [Aragon](25359), came together when the king of Aragon, [Ferdinand II](41078), married the queen of Castile, [Isabella](39687).
In the same year, 1492, they decided to send [Christopher Columbus](4635) to explore the [Atlantic Ocean](1936). Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know. These were the islands of the [Caribbean Sea](15220).
## Late 15th century
Columbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two [continent](117)s there - [North America](557) and [South America](1989). Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents. Owning this [empire](15226) made Spain very rich. But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the [Native American](37)s who had lived there before. Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years.
Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries. Jews had been expelled from Spain. The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning. Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in [music](472): [harmony](29346) and stringed instruments, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses.
## 16th and 17th centuries
The [Spanish Empire](64135) was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to [gold](3260) from the [Americas](227444). This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich. Meanwhile, others' savings became worth less due to [inflation](14655). Spain became a society of very rich and very poor. Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the [Caribbean](15218), [Central America](3596) and [South America](1989), mostly to find gold.
[Native American](37) peoples were killed by [disease](4874)s brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this. They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers. The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives. Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish.
The Spanish Empire also at this time funded the [Spanish Inquisition](197312) which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation which created Protestant [sect](24941)s in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed.
The nobles of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over. No one could challenge their power. In many ways it was held together as a reign of terror. People who challenged them were often called heretics, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property.
For ordinary people on both sides of the [Atlantic Ocean](1936), life got worse. A few rulers got rich. Today we would say that these people were guilty of [war crime](48175)s, [genocide](7715) and [crimes against humanity](533816). Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today. But none of this mattered much to the rulers.
The great [satire](55199) [Don Quixote](8578) was written about this time.
## 18th and 19th centuries
In the [18th century](12978), there was doubt over who should become king of Spain; this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain. This was called the [War of the Spanish Succession](426511).
[France](291) occupied Spain for a long time. This made Spain very weak. It also made Spain lose its empire in North and South America; all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the [United States of America](219587).
## 20th century
There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the [20th century](3407). Some [Spaniards](340635) tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a [democracy](3195)), and they made the [King](410) of Spain leave the country. However, in [1936](8715), two different groups of [Spaniards](340635) went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person. In [1939](7949), those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a [dictator](34324) named [Francisco Franco](15526) took over the government.
Franco died in [1975](7794). He had decided that [Spain](219832) should have a king again, and he chose [Juan Carlos](167741), the grandson of the king who had been forced to leave the country, to be king. But the king did not rule as a dictator; instead, he chose to set up a democracy. Also since Franco's death, Spain appointed [Adolfo Suárez](436927) to became Spain's first democratically elected [prime minister](444471). Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does [business](6642) with many countries around the world. It is a part of the [European Union](2132).
|
**Spain** is a country in Europe.
## Early History
People have lived on the Iberian Peninsula for about 500,000 years. Neanderthal man came about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans first came about 40,000 years. Thousands of years ago Iberians and Celts lived there, and the Phoenicians made a few cities there to get tin and silver to trade.
The Roman Empire controlled Spain for three hundred years; then people from Eastern Europe called Visigoths fought for Spain, won it from the Romans, and controlled Spain for over two hundred years.
## Medieval times
The Visigoths converted from Arian Christianity to Roman Catholics. Muslims who were Arab and Berber invaded in 711 and conquered Spain in 718. They called it Al-Andalus. Roman Catholics eventually decided to fight to take Spain back from the Muslims. They fought wars called the reconquista for more than seven hundred years. They also fought Crusades against other Christians like the Cathars. The Moors also fought each other for control of Al-Andalus.
In the year 1492, they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors. Boabdil, the last Moorish Leader of Granada, gave the city to King Ferdinand of Aragon on 2 January 1492, and Christians now ruled all of Spain.
Before this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when the king of Aragon, Ferdinand II, married the queen of Castile, Isabella.
In the same year, 1492, they decided to send Christopher Columbus to explore the Atlantic Ocean. Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know. These were the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
## Late 15th century
Columbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two continents there - North America and South America. Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents. Owning this empire made Spain very rich. But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the Native Americans who had lived there before. Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years.
Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries. Jews had been expelled from Spain. The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning. Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in music: harmony and stringed instruments, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses.
## 16th and 17th centuries
The Spanish Empire was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to gold from the Americas. This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich. Meanwhile, others' savings became worth less due to inflation. Spain became a society of very rich and very poor. Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the Caribbean, Central America and South America, mostly to find gold.
Native American peoples were killed by diseases brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this. They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers. The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives. Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish.
The Spanish Empire also at this time funded the Spanish Inquisition which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation which created Protestant sects in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed.
The nobles of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over. No one could challenge their power. In many ways it was held together as a reign of terror. People who challenged them were often called heretics, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property.
For ordinary people on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, life got worse. A few rulers got rich. Today we would say that these people were guilty of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today. But none of this mattered much to the rulers.
The great satire Don Quixote was written about this time.
## 18th and 19th centuries
In the 18th century, there was doubt over who should become king of Spain; this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain. This was called the War of the Spanish Succession.
France occupied Spain for a long time. This made Spain very weak. It also made Spain lose its empire in North and South America; all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the United States of America.
## 20th century
There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made the King of Spain leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
Franco died in 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a king again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of the king who had been forced to leave the country, to be king. But the king did not rule as a dictator; instead, he chose to set up a democracy. Also since Franco's death, Spain appointed Adolfo Suárez to became Spain's first democratically elected prime minister. Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is a part of the European Union.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
348
|
Height
|
**Height** is the [distance](203) between the lowest end and highest end of an object.
For example, it is said the bottom of the foot is a person's lowest end, and the top of the head is a person's highest end. If the distance between the bottom of a person's foot and the top of that person's head is 64 [inch](381)es, then that person's height is 64 inches.
Height is measured in [3D](7126) objects. [2D](45131) objects do not have height; they only have length and [width](937).
## Related pages
- [Depth](204)
- [Elevation](53011)
- [Volume](895)
|
**Height** is the distance between the lowest end and highest end of an object.
For example, it is said the bottom of the foot is a person's lowest end, and the top of the head is a person's highest end. If the distance between the bottom of a person's foot and the top of that person's head is 64 inches, then that person's height is 64 inches.
Height is measured in 3D objects. 2D objects do not have height; they only have length and width.
## Related pages
- Depth
- Elevation
- Volume
|
high
| false
| false
|
349
|
Historian
|
A **historian** is someone who [studies](23574) [history](324). Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies.
## Education
Professional historians often get a [Master's degree](298513) or [PhD](55059). A Master's degree student spends most of their time in the classroom. A PhD student needs to write a long [research](23574) paper known as a [thesis](290786) to graduate. Classes focus on learning about history, not teaching history. However, most historians do need to teach history.
## As a job
Professional historians are often [professors](3007) of history and teach it at colleges and universities. They share their ideas about history by writing books and articles.
Other historians work in public history. They may work in [museums](14057) or at [landmarks](67225) where important historic events happened.
## Related pages
- [List of historians](4554)
### Sources
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
- Richard B. Todd, ed. (2004). _Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960_, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 .
- Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). _Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing_. London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn
- Lateiner, D. (1989). _The historical method of Herodotus_. Phoenix, 23. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- John Cannon et al., eds. (1988). _The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians_. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 .
- Hartog, F. (1988). _The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history_. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Erik Christiansen (1970). _The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic_, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet
- Gottschalk, L. R. (1950). _Understanding history; a primer of historical method_. New York: Knopf
- Barnes, M. S. (1896). _[Studies in historical method](https://books.google.com/books?id=RRYAAAAAYAAJ)_. Heath's pedagogical library. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
- Taylor, I. (1889). _[History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof](https://books.google.com/books?id=0d3lJMHq0xIC): or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures_. Liverpool: E. Howell.
- Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862). _[History of Herodotus](https://books.google.com/books?id=tzENAAAAIAAJ)_. A new English version. London: John Murray.
- Véricour, L. R. d. (1850). _[Historical analysis of Christian civilisation](https://books.google.com/books?id=JuoXAAAAMAAJ)_. London: J. Chapman.
- Taylor, I. (1828). _[The process of historical proof](https://books.google.com/books?id=bgQDAAAAMAAJ)_. London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth.
- Elizabeth Kostova "The Historian"
</div>
|
A **historian** is someone who studies history. Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies.
## Education
Professional historians often get a Master's degree or PhD. A Master's degree student spends most of their time in the classroom. A PhD student needs to write a long research paper known as a thesis to graduate. Classes focus on learning about history, not teaching history. However, most historians do need to teach history.
## As a job
Professional historians are often professors of history and teach it at colleges and universities. They share their ideas about history by writing books and articles.
Other historians work in public history. They may work in museums or at landmarks where important historic events happened.
## Related pages
- List of historians
### Sources
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
- Richard B. Todd, ed. (2004). _Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960_, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 .
- Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). _Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing_. London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn
- Lateiner, D. (1989). _The historical method of Herodotus_. Phoenix, 23. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- John Cannon et al., eds. (1988). _The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians_. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 .
- Hartog, F. (1988). _The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history_. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Erik Christiansen (1970). _The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic_, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet
- Gottschalk, L. R. (1950). _Understanding history; a primer of historical method_. New York: Knopf
- Barnes, M. S. (1896). _Studies in historical method_. Heath's pedagogical library. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
- Taylor, I. (1889). _History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof: or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures_. Liverpool: E. Howell.
- Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862). _History of Herodotus_. A new English version. London: John Murray.
- Véricour, L. R. d. (1850). _Historical analysis of Christian civilisation_. London: J. Chapman.
- Taylor, I. (1828). _The process of historical proof_. London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth.
- Elizabeth Kostova "The Historian"
</div>
|
medium
| false
| false
|
353
|
Human body
|
The **human body** is the [body](4361) of a [person](502310). It is the [physical](87054) structure of a person.
The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by [death](209). You need your muscles and your joints to move.
## Study of the human body
Some people [study](23574) the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other [animal](62)s' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be [extinct](11143) animals like other [hominid](111200)s. (Hominids are [primate](21276)s that are close to humans. [Neanderthal](102275)s and _[Homo erectus](102284)_ were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its [environment](13637). Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.
## Fields of study
Many different fields of study look at the human:
- [Biology](101) is a field of [science](700). It studies living things. It looks at how the human body works. It studies how the human body came from [evolution](8740). It studies how [genetics](9424) makes the human body.
- [Anatomy](50) studies the parts of the body and how they work together.
- [Ecology](243) studies the environment including how humans affect it.
- [Physical anthropology](24544) is a field of science. It compares humans to other [hominid](111200)s. It also studies all other hominid bodies. They look at how [human](502310)s and [chimpanzee](33334)s are the same or different.
- [Psychology](6204) is a field of [medicine](3793). It looks at how people think and feel. The [brain](4365) is part of the body. How we think and feel comes from the brain. So psychologists study the body. They study how the brain lets us be who we are.
- [Religion](653) also talks about the body. Some religions see the body as where the [soul](805) lives. Some see the body as like a [church](142). This is because a church is where people [worship](51910) [God](305). These people think God should be worshiped inside people. Some religions think the body is made from [chakras](86364) that connect us to the [universe](858).
- [Medicine](3793) sees the body like a [machine](7240). [Doctors](9501) want to fix problems with the body. They study how to fix the problems, such as [injury](13712) and [disease](4874).
## Parts of human body
- [Head](3459)
- [Ear](15497)
- [Face](4061)
- [Forehead](29210)
- [Eyebrow](16604)
- [Eye](3743)
- [Cheek](103060)
- [Nose](9585)
- [Mouth](13833)
- [Lips](40778)
- [Chin](44255)
- [Neck](392050)
- [Torso](24215)
- [Chest](27568)
- [Breast](13226)
- [Abdomen](13970)
- [Umbilicus](19760)
- [Groin](119770)
- [Pelvis](27755)
- [Vulva](33402)
- [Penis](4465)
- [Scrotum](13510)
- Back
- [Upper limb](3946)
- [Shoulder](308936)
- [Axilla](170819)
- [Elbow](30126)
- [Forearm](57434)
- [Wrist](30127)
- [Hand](12653)
- [Finger](26683)
- [Lower limb](3033)
- [Buttocks](104269)
- [Thigh](640861)
- [Knee](30128)
- Calf
- [Ankle](19503)
- [Foot](1018172)
## Organ system
Various [organ system](151697)s give the body the ability to live and do things.
- [circulatory system](13451) is the body system that moves [blood](2950) around the body.
- digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food.
- The [endocrine system](75895) includes those organs of the body which produce [hormones](13384).
- [immune system](263688) is the set of [tissue](13997)s which work together to resist [infection](9998)s.
- [integumentary system](85384) is everything covering the outside of an animal's body.
- [lymphatic system](54954) is a network of thin vessels that branch into tissues throughout the body.
- [musculoskeletal system](929644) consists of the human [skeleton](17184) and attached [muscle](13744)s.
- [nervous system](52871) is a body system which sends signals around the body.
- [reproductive system](33294) is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce.
- [respiratory system](93639) is the body getting rid of [carbon dioxide](11599) and taking in [oxygen](2949).
- [urinary system](389588) is a system of organs that makes [urine](33303)/pee and takes it out of the body.
## The human body and other animals
The human body is like other animals. The [skeleton](17184), [muscle](13744)s and other parts are very much like those of other [primate](21276)s. Our body is also like other [mammal](525)s, and somewhat like other [vertebrate](5899)s. [DNA](4472) differences follow a similar pattern. The [human genome](361022) is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to [chimpanzee](33334).
|
The **human body** is the body of a person. It is the physical structure of a person.
The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by death. You need your muscles and your joints to move.
## Study of the human body
Some people study the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (Hominids are primates that are close to humans. Neanderthals and _Homo erectus_ were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.
## Fields of study
Many different fields of study look at the human:
- Biology is a field of science. It studies living things. It looks at how the human body works. It studies how the human body came from evolution. It studies how genetics makes the human body.
- Anatomy studies the parts of the body and how they work together.
- Ecology studies the environment including how humans affect it.
- Physical anthropology is a field of science. It compares humans to other hominids. It also studies all other hominid bodies. They look at how humans and chimpanzees are the same or different.
- Psychology is a field of medicine. It looks at how people think and feel. The brain is part of the body. How we think and feel comes from the brain. So psychologists study the body. They study how the brain lets us be who we are.
- Religion also talks about the body. Some religions see the body as where the soul lives. Some see the body as like a church. This is because a church is where people worship God. These people think God should be worshiped inside people. Some religions think the body is made from chakras that connect us to the universe.
- Medicine sees the body like a machine. Doctors want to fix problems with the body. They study how to fix the problems, such as injury and disease.
## Parts of human body
- Head
- Ear
- Face
- Forehead
- Eyebrow
- Eye
- Cheek
- Nose
- Mouth
- Lips
- Chin
- Neck
- Torso
- Chest
- Breast
- Abdomen
- Umbilicus
- Groin
- Pelvis
- Vulva
- Penis
- Scrotum
- Back
- Upper limb
- Shoulder
- Axilla
- Elbow
- Forearm
- Wrist
- Hand
- Finger
- Lower limb
- Buttocks
- Thigh
- Knee
- Calf
- Ankle
- Foot
## Organ system
Various organ systems give the body the ability to live and do things.
- circulatory system is the body system that moves blood around the body.
- digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food.
- The endocrine system includes those organs of the body which produce hormones.
- immune system is the set of tissues which work together to resist infections.
- integumentary system is everything covering the outside of an animal's body.
- lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch into tissues throughout the body.
- musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton and attached muscles.
- nervous system is a body system which sends signals around the body.
- reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce.
- respiratory system is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen.
- urinary system is a system of organs that makes urine/pee and takes it out of the body.
## The human body and other animals
The human body is like other animals. The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates. Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates. DNA differences follow a similar pattern. The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee.
|
high
| false
| false
|
355
|
Hydrogen
|
**Hydrogen** is the lightest and most abundant [element](247) in the universe. It is the simplest element and the first in the [periodic table](637). It has the [chemical symbol](53789) **H** and [atomic number](8407) 1, which means it has just one [proton](9526) in its [nucleus](111794). Hydrogen also has a [standard atomic weight](421839) of 1.008. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless [gas](3283) at [room temperature](56740). It is also highly flammable. When hydrogen burns in [oxygen](2949), it creates [water](939) and releases a lot of [energy](4115).
Hydrogen can be found as H₂ molecules. This means two hydrogen atoms join together to make a stable gas. It has a very low [boiling](21982) and [melting point](28181), so it becomes a liquid or solid only at extremely cold temperatures. There are also different forms, or [isotope](3489)s of hydrogen. The most common is protium, which has just one proton. There is also [deuterium](48935), which has one proton and one [neutron](16913), and [tritium](63374), which has one proton and two neutrons and is [radioactive](28153). Hydrogen is very reactive, especially with oxygen and other nonmetals. It often forms compounds like [water](939) (H₂O), [methane](20235) (CH₄), and [ammonia](7372) (NH₃).
Hydrogen is the most common element in the [universe](858). It makes up 75% of all normal [matter](50759) by [mass](513). Most of the hydrogen is found in [star](3017)s, including the [Sun](44408). It fuels the process of [nuclear fusion](28699), giving off [light](3987) and [heat](5761). On [Earth](219), hydrogen is not usually found as a pure gas because it is so light and reactive. Instead, it is most commonly found in [compound](6101)s. It can be found especially in water (H₂O), which covers about 70% of Earth’s surface. Hydrogen is also found in living things, because it is part of many [organic compound](4110)s, such as [sugar](9642)s, [fat](19532)s, and [protein](636)s. Hydrogen can be found in [fossil fuel](19412)s and in some [mineral](4668)s. It can also be found in [volcanic gas](1043130)es and the upper atmosphere, where it slowly escapes into [space](2899) because of its lightness.
Hydrogen is very reactive, especially because it has only one [electron](4006). This makes it easy for hydrogen to form bonds with other elements. It usually forms molecules like H₂, where two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to become more stable. Hydrogen reacts easily with [oxygen](2949) to form [water](939) (H₂O). This reaction releases a lot of energy and is why hydrogen is used as a [fuel](4077) in [rocket](6793)s and [fuel cell](74715)s. It also reacts with many [nonmetal](16427)s, such as [chlorine](19375), to form compounds like [hydrogen chloride](258239) (HCl). Hydrogen can act as both a [reducer](257940) (it gives electrons) and, in some cases, as an [oxidizer](257938) (it takes electrons). Hydrogen can also form [acid](4442)s when combined with certain elements. For example, when it bonds with chlorine, it creates [hydrochloric acid](72622) when dissolved in water. It can also form [hydride](168369)s when it reacts with [metal](3332)s, where hydrogen behaves like a [negatively charged ion](26704).
The history of hydrogen goes back to the 1700s, when scientists first began studying gases. In 1766, the British scientist [Henry Cavendish](75881) was the first to recognize hydrogen as a separate gas. He called it “inflammable air” because it burned easily and produced water when it reacted with [air](9). Later, in 1783, the famous French scientist [Antoine Lavoisier](215781) gave the gas its modern name: hydrogen, which means “water-former” in [Greek](4606). He realized that water is not an element but a compound made from hydrogen and oxygen. In the 1800s and 1900s, scientists learned more about hydrogen’s properties and uses. It became important in [chemical industries](1013597), like making [ammonia](7372) for [fertilizer](3515). It was also used in [airship](36902)s, although this was dangerous because hydrogen can catch [fire](9476) easily. One tragic example was the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, when a hydrogen-filled [airship](36902) caught fire. In the 20th and 21st centuries, liquid hydrogen was used as [rocket fuel](649642). It has also gained attention as a [clean energy source](55907).
Hydrogen does not exist freely in large amounts on Earth, so it must be produced by us. The two main ways to make hydrogen are steam reforming and [electrolysis](46199). Steam reforming is the most common method. It involves heating [natural gas](4114) (mostly [methane](20235)) with [steam](8386) to release hydrogen. This process is widely used in [industries](166202). Electrolysis is another method that uses [electricity](7163) to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. However, electrolysis is more expensive than steam reforming. Hydrogen can also be produced using other methods, such as biological processes (using [bacteria](10861) or [algae](21914)) and thermochemical reactions that use [heat](5761) from [nuclear](57322) or [solar energy](56400). Once produced, hydrogen is usually stored as a [gas](3283) under [pressure](31982), or as a [liquid](7870) at very low temperatures, so it can be used in industries, [fuel cell](74715)s, and [rocket](6793)s.
Hydrogen has many important uses in [industry](166202), [science](700), and [energy](4115). One of its biggest uses is in making ammonia (NH₃) through the [Haber process](232357). [Ammonia](7372) is used to produce [fertilizer](3515)s, which help grow food for people around the world. Hydrogen is also used in [oil refineries](291210) to help remove [sulfur](5311) from fuels. It is used in making [methanol](183468), which is a basic chemical for making [plastic](646)s and other products. In [energy](4115), hydrogen is used as a [clean fuel](55907). It can power [fuel cell](74715)s, which produce [electricity](7163) without [pollution](226886). The only byproduct is water. Fuel cells are used in some cars, [bus](192885)es, and even [spacecraft](21736)s. Hydrogen is also important in [space exploration](31894). It is used as a rocket fuel because it burns with a lot of energy and produces only [water vapor](4057). Liquid hydrogen, combined with liquid oxygen, has been used to launch many [rocket](6793)s.
## Properties
Hydrogen is grouped as a [reactive nonmetal](16427). This is different from the other elements found in the first [group](80849) of the periodic table, which are called [alkali metal](16399)s. Only the solid form of hydrogen should behave like a metal, though.
When hydrogen is by itself, it will normally [bind](42963) with itself to make **dihydrogen** (H<sub>2</sub>). Dihydrogen is very stable because of its high bond-dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol.
At [normal temperature and pressure](3982), hydrogen gas (H<sub>2</sub>) has no color, smell, or [taste](13407). It is also not [poisonous](6087). This is because it is a [nonmetal](16427) and burns very easily. Hydrogen gas at this state also has low [density](21342) and is not [corrosive](190000).
### Combustion
[Molecular](520) hydrogen is flammable and [reacts](4891) with [oxygen](2949):
2 H<sub>2</sub>(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g) → 2 H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)
Hydrogen gas can be very dangerous. It can explode when mixed with [air](9) or certain gases. If hydrogen gas makes up between 4% and 74% of the air, it can catch [fire](9476) and [explode](42777). It can also explode when mixed with [chlorine gas](19375). This happens if the [mixture](3257) has between 5% and 95% hydrogen.
Hydrogen can catch fire by itself if it gets hot enough. This happens at a [temperature](6329) of about 500°C (932°F). In some cases, if hydrogen leaks out under high pressure, the [force](3220) of the leak can heat the air around it to that temperature. This can cause the gas to burst into flames or even explode.
Hydrogen [flame](66726)s are hard to see. They burn with a faint blue color and give off ultraviolet light. The [human eye](783654) cannot see ultraviolet light. In daylight, it is almost impossible to see a hydrogen fire. That is why special flame detectors are used to find hydrogen fires and keep people safe.
### Compounds
While hydrogen [gas](3283) in its natural form is not [reactive](313661), it does form [compounds](6101) with many elements, especially [halogen](19377)s, which are very [electronegative](131074), meaning they want an [electron](4006) very badly. Hydrogen also forms massive arrays with [carbon](4887) [atom](47)s, forming [hydrocarbon](7418)s. The study of the properties of hydrocarbons is known as [organic chemistry](9525).
The H<sup>-</sup> [anion](26704) (negatively [charged](9345) atom) is named a [hydride](168369), though the word is not commonly used. An example of a hydride is lithium hydride (LiH), which is used as a "[spark plug](805016)" in nuclear weapons.
### Acids
[Acid](4442)s dissolved in water normally contain high levels of hydrogen [ion](2099)s, in other words, free [proton](9526)s. Their level is generally used to determine its pH, that is, the content of hydrogen ions in a [volume](895). For example, [hydrochloric acid](72622), found in people's stomachs, can dissociate into a [chloride](38078) anion and a free proton, and the property of the free proton is how it can digest food by [corroding](40523) it.
Though uncommon on Earth, the H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> [cation](632038) is one of the most common ions in the universe.
### Isotopes
Hydrogen has 7 known isotopes, two of which are stable (<sup>1</sup>H and <sup>2</sup>H), which are commonly named protium and [deuterium](48935). The isotope <sup>3</sup>H is known as [tritium](63374), has a half-life of 12.33 years, and is produced in small amounts by [cosmic ray](241923)s. The 4 isotopes left have half-lives on the scale of [yoctoseconds](171281).
## Hydrogen in nature
In its natural form on Earth, hydrogen is generally a [gas](3283). Hydrogen is also one of the parts that make up a [water](939) molecule. Hydrogen is important because it is the [fuel](4077) that powers the [Sun](44408) and other stars.
Hydrogen makes up about 74% of the complete [universe](858).
Natural hydrogen is normally made of two hydrogen [atom](47)s connected together. Scientists name these [diatomic molecules](132353). Hydrogen will have a [chemical reaction](4891) when mixed with most other elements, though it has no [color](2083) or [smell](59440).
Natural hydrogen is very uncommon in the [Earth](219)'s [atmosphere](4464), because nearly all primordial hydrogen would have escaped into space because of its weight. In nature, it is generally in [water](939). Hydrogen is also in all living things, as a part of the [organic compound](4110)s that living things are made of. In addition, hydrogen atoms can join with [carbon](4887) atoms to form [hydrocarbon](7418)s. [Petroleum](4113) and other [fossil fuel](19412)s are made of these hydrocarbons and commonly used to make [energy](4115).
Some other facts about hydrogen:
- It is a gas at [room temperature](56740)
- It acts like a [metal](3332) when it is solid.
- It is the lightest element in the [Universe](858).
- It is the most common element in the Universe.
- It burns or [explodes](42777) at temperatures higher than 1000°F / 528°C, such as in [fire](9476).
- It glows [purple](8946) when it is in [plasma](6732) [state](3325).
### Big Bang (or the creation of our universe)
Hydrogen is the simplest element in the [universe](858), made of just one [proton](9526) and one [electron](4006). It is also the most common element, and most of it was formed very early in the history of the universe. Scientists believe that hydrogen was created about three minutes after the [Big Bang](4484), when the universe had expanded and cooled enough for protons and neutrons to stick together without being torn apart by high-energy radiation. This moment is known as [Big Bang nucleosynthesis](847135).
In the first few seconds after the Big Bang, the universe was so hot that particles like [quark](6828)s and [gluon](18565)s were free. As things cooled, these particles combined to form protons and neutrons. Because neutrons are less stable, there were fewer of them compared to protons, about one neutron for every six protons. When the universe cooled even more, protons and neutrons could join together to make heavier particles. The first step was forming [deuterium](48935), which is one proton plus one neutron. Before this, deuterium could not survive because the universe was still too hot. This stage is called the “deuterium bottleneck.”
Once deuterium could survive, it allowed more nuclear reactions to happen. Most of the neutrons quickly got locked inside [helium-4](389450), a stable form of [helium](357). Small amounts of [helium-3](796597), lithium-7, and beryllium-7 were also made. However, the majority of matter remained as hydrogen, mostly in the form of single protons. This meant that about 75% of the ordinary matter in the universe was hydrogen. At first, this hydrogen existed as [plasma](19481), with free protons and electrons spread everywhere.
It was not until about 380,000 years later that the universe cooled enough for electrons to join protons and form neutral hydrogen atoms. This event is called recombination. Once hydrogen atoms formed, [light](3987) was able to travel freely through [space](2899), making the universe transparent. The leftover glow from this moment is called the cosmic microwave background, and scientists can still detect it today. Almost all hydrogen in the universe comes from this process, and its presence, along with small amounts of deuterium and helium, provides strong evidence that the Big Bang really happened.
### Storage of hydrogen
Hydrogen is being studied as a possible [fuel](4077) of the future, but one of the hardest parts is figuring out how to store it safely and efficiently. Unlike [gasoline](19520) or diesel, which are dense [liquid](7870)s, hydrogen is the lightest element in the [universe](858). It exists as a [gas](3283) made of two [atom](47)s (H₂). Because it is so light and has a very low density, storing enough hydrogen in a small space is very hard. It does not dissolve well in liquids either, which means you cannot just “mix” it into something like [water](939) or other [solvent](59417)s to store it. For example, at normal room temperature and pressure, only a tiny amount of hydrogen can dissolve in a liquid like [diethyl ether](70819). This is why scientists focus on other methods of storage, such as gas, liquid, or solid storage.
One common way to store hydrogen is by compressing it into high-pressure tanks. These tanks can hold hydrogen gas at pressures hundreds of times higher than normal air pressure. Cars that run on hydrogen often use this method. But there are problems. It takes a lot of [energy](4115) to squeeze hydrogen into these tanks, the tanks themselves are heavy and expensive, and hydrogen is so tiny that it can leak out through [material](4363)s. Another way is to cool hydrogen down until it becomes a [liquid](7870). This makes it much denser and easier to store, but hydrogen only becomes liquid at extremely cold temperatures, almost minus 240 °C. Keeping it that cold requires a lot of energy and special equipment, and liquid hydrogen tends to evaporate (called boil-off), wasting [fuel](4077).
Because of these problems, researchers have looked at “hydrogen carriers.” These are substances that can absorb hydrogen, hold onto it, and then release it later when needed. One example is [metal hydrides](168369), where hydrogen atoms fit into the tiny spaces inside a metal’s structure. This is useful in some ways, but most metals can only hold a small amount of hydrogen by weight, often just around 1%. Hydrogen can also damage [metal](3332)s, making them weaker in a process called embrittlement, which is a problem for pipes and storage containers.
Other chemical carriers can hold more hydrogen. Ammonia borane, for instance, contains about 20% hydrogen by weight, which is much better. However, once it releases hydrogen, the leftovers can’t easily take hydrogen back in, so the process is one-way and not very practical for long-term use. A more promising idea is using liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). These are special liquids that can absorb hydrogen and then release it when needed, over and over again. The advantage is that they can be stored and transported using the same systems we already use for liquid fuels like gasoline, which makes them easier to fit into today’s infrastructure.
In the end, storing hydrogen is still a big challenge. Compressing and cooling it works but costs a lot of [energy](4115). [Metal](3332)s can hold it safely but do not store much. Some chemicals can carry a lot of hydrogen but cannot be reused easily. LOHCs look like one of the better solutions, but they are still being developed. Until scientists find the best balance of safety, efficiency, and cost, hydrogen storage will remain one of the key obstacles in making hydrogen a major energy source for the world.
## Uses of Hydrogen
The most common uses are in the [petroleum](4113) industry and in making [ammonia](7372) by the [Haber process](232357). Some is used in other places in the [chemical](17948) industry. A little of it is used as [fuel](4077), for example in [rocket](6793)s for [spacecraft](21736). Most of the hydrogen that people use comes from a [chemical reaction](4891) between [natural gas](4114) and [steam](8386).
### Nuclear fusion
[Nuclear fusion](28699) is a very powerful source of [energy](4115). It depends on forcing [atom](47)s together to make [helium](357) and energy, as in a [star](3017) like the [Sun](44408), or in a [hydrogen bomb](6475). This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do currently. A big advantage over [nuclear fission](8061), which is used in today's [nuclear power](45760) stations, is that it makes less nuclear waste and does not use a poisonous and uncommon [fuel](4077) like [uranium](19146). More than 600 million [ton](724663)s of hydrogen undergo fusion every second on the Sun.
### Using hydrogen
Hydrogen is mostly used in the petroleum industry, to change heavy petroleum parts into lighter, more useful ones. It is also used to make [ammonia](7372). Smaller amounts are burned as fuel. Most hydrogen is made by a reaction between [natural gas](4114) and [steam](8386).
The [electrolysis of water](474747) breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen, using electricity. Burning hydrogen joins with oxygen molecules to make [steam](8386) (natural water vapor). A [fuel cell](74715) joins hydrogen with an oxygen [molecule](520), releasing an electron as electricity. For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will replace other [synthetic fuel](451007)s in the future.
Hydrogen can also be burned to make heat for [steam turbine](427983)s or [internal combustion engine](93641)s. Like other synthetic fuels, hydrogen can be made from natural fuels such as [coal](4111) or natural gas, or from electricity, and therefore represents a valuable addition to the [power grid](55762); in the same role as [natural gas](4114). Such a grid and infrastructure with [fuel cell vehicle](1019547)s is now planned by a number of countries, such as [Japan](403), Korea and many European countries. This lets these countries buy less [petroleum](4113), which is an economic advantage. The other advantage is that, used in a fuel cell or burned in a combustion engine as in a [hydrogen car](143980), the engine does not make [pollution](7638). Only water, and a small amount of [nitrogen oxide](263072)s, forms.
## Other websites
- [Hydrogen](https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Hydrogen) - Citizendium
## Infobox (hydrogen)
|
**Hydrogen** is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is the simplest element and the first in the periodic table. It has the chemical symbol **H** and atomic number 1, which means it has just one proton in its nucleus. Hydrogen also has a standard atomic weight of 1.008. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas at room temperature. It is also highly flammable. When hydrogen burns in oxygen, it creates water and releases a lot of energy.
Hydrogen can be found as H₂ molecules. This means two hydrogen atoms join together to make a stable gas. It has a very low boiling and melting point, so it becomes a liquid or solid only at extremely cold temperatures. There are also different forms, or isotopes of hydrogen. The most common is protium, which has just one proton. There is also deuterium, which has one proton and one neutron, and tritium, which has one proton and two neutrons and is radioactive. Hydrogen is very reactive, especially with oxygen and other nonmetals. It often forms compounds like water (H₂O), methane (CH₄), and ammonia (NH₃).
Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe. It makes up 75% of all normal matter by mass. Most of the hydrogen is found in stars, including the Sun. It fuels the process of nuclear fusion, giving off light and heat. On Earth, hydrogen is not usually found as a pure gas because it is so light and reactive. Instead, it is most commonly found in compounds. It can be found especially in water (H₂O), which covers about 70% of Earth’s surface. Hydrogen is also found in living things, because it is part of many organic compounds, such as sugars, fats, and proteins. Hydrogen can be found in fossil fuels and in some minerals. It can also be found in volcanic gases and the upper atmosphere, where it slowly escapes into space because of its lightness.
Hydrogen is very reactive, especially because it has only one electron. This makes it easy for hydrogen to form bonds with other elements. It usually forms molecules like H₂, where two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to become more stable. Hydrogen reacts easily with oxygen to form water (H₂O). This reaction releases a lot of energy and is why hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets and fuel cells. It also reacts with many nonmetals, such as chlorine, to form compounds like hydrogen chloride (HCl). Hydrogen can act as both a reducer (it gives electrons) and, in some cases, as an oxidizer (it takes electrons). Hydrogen can also form acids when combined with certain elements. For example, when it bonds with chlorine, it creates hydrochloric acid when dissolved in water. It can also form hydrides when it reacts with metals, where hydrogen behaves like a negatively charged ion.
The history of hydrogen goes back to the 1700s, when scientists first began studying gases. In 1766, the British scientist Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen as a separate gas. He called it “inflammable air” because it burned easily and produced water when it reacted with air. Later, in 1783, the famous French scientist Antoine Lavoisier gave the gas its modern name: hydrogen, which means “water-former” in Greek. He realized that water is not an element but a compound made from hydrogen and oxygen. In the 1800s and 1900s, scientists learned more about hydrogen’s properties and uses. It became important in chemical industries, like making ammonia for fertilizer. It was also used in airships, although this was dangerous because hydrogen can catch fire easily. One tragic example was the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, when a hydrogen-filled airship caught fire. In the 20th and 21st centuries, liquid hydrogen was used as rocket fuel. It has also gained attention as a clean energy source.
Hydrogen does not exist freely in large amounts on Earth, so it must be produced by us. The two main ways to make hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis. Steam reforming is the most common method. It involves heating natural gas (mostly methane) with steam to release hydrogen. This process is widely used in industries. Electrolysis is another method that uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. However, electrolysis is more expensive than steam reforming. Hydrogen can also be produced using other methods, such as biological processes (using bacteria or algae) and thermochemical reactions that use heat from nuclear or solar energy. Once produced, hydrogen is usually stored as a gas under pressure, or as a liquid at very low temperatures, so it can be used in industries, fuel cells, and rockets.
Hydrogen has many important uses in industry, science, and energy. One of its biggest uses is in making ammonia (NH₃) through the Haber process. Ammonia is used to produce fertilizers, which help grow food for people around the world. Hydrogen is also used in oil refineries to help remove sulfur from fuels. It is used in making methanol, which is a basic chemical for making plastics and other products. In energy, hydrogen is used as a clean fuel. It can power fuel cells, which produce electricity without pollution. The only byproduct is water. Fuel cells are used in some cars, buses, and even spacecrafts. Hydrogen is also important in space exploration. It is used as a rocket fuel because it burns with a lot of energy and produces only water vapor. Liquid hydrogen, combined with liquid oxygen, has been used to launch many rockets.
## Properties
Hydrogen is grouped as a reactive nonmetal. This is different from the other elements found in the first group of the periodic table, which are called alkali metals. Only the solid form of hydrogen should behave like a metal, though.
When hydrogen is by itself, it will normally bind with itself to make **dihydrogen** (H<sub>2</sub>). Dihydrogen is very stable because of its high bond-dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol.
At normal temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas (H<sub>2</sub>) has no color, smell, or taste. It is also not poisonous. This is because it is a nonmetal and burns very easily. Hydrogen gas at this state also has low density and is not corrosive.
### Combustion
Molecular hydrogen is flammable and reacts with oxygen:
2 H<sub>2</sub>(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g) → 2 H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)
Hydrogen gas can be very dangerous. It can explode when mixed with air or certain gases. If hydrogen gas makes up between 4% and 74% of the air, it can catch fire and explode. It can also explode when mixed with chlorine gas. This happens if the mixture has between 5% and 95% hydrogen.
Hydrogen can catch fire by itself if it gets hot enough. This happens at a temperature of about 500°C (932°F). In some cases, if hydrogen leaks out under high pressure, the force of the leak can heat the air around it to that temperature. This can cause the gas to burst into flames or even explode.
Hydrogen flames are hard to see. They burn with a faint blue color and give off ultraviolet light. The human eye cannot see ultraviolet light. In daylight, it is almost impossible to see a hydrogen fire. That is why special flame detectors are used to find hydrogen fires and keep people safe.
### Compounds
While hydrogen gas in its natural form is not reactive, it does form compounds with many elements, especially halogens, which are very electronegative, meaning they want an electron very badly. Hydrogen also forms massive arrays with carbon atoms, forming hydrocarbons. The study of the properties of hydrocarbons is known as organic chemistry.
The H<sup>-</sup> anion (negatively charged atom) is named a hydride, though the word is not commonly used. An example of a hydride is lithium hydride (LiH), which is used as a "spark plug" in nuclear weapons.
### Acids
Acids dissolved in water normally contain high levels of hydrogen ions, in other words, free protons. Their level is generally used to determine its pH, that is, the content of hydrogen ions in a volume. For example, hydrochloric acid, found in people's stomachs, can dissociate into a chloride anion and a free proton, and the property of the free proton is how it can digest food by corroding it.
Though uncommon on Earth, the H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> cation is one of the most common ions in the universe.
### Isotopes
Hydrogen has 7 known isotopes, two of which are stable (<sup>1</sup>H and <sup>2</sup>H), which are commonly named protium and deuterium. The isotope <sup>3</sup>H is known as tritium, has a half-life of 12.33 years, and is produced in small amounts by cosmic rays. The 4 isotopes left have half-lives on the scale of yoctoseconds.
## Hydrogen in nature
In its natural form on Earth, hydrogen is generally a gas. Hydrogen is also one of the parts that make up a water molecule. Hydrogen is important because it is the fuel that powers the Sun and other stars.
Hydrogen makes up about 74% of the complete universe.
Natural hydrogen is normally made of two hydrogen atoms connected together. Scientists name these diatomic molecules. Hydrogen will have a chemical reaction when mixed with most other elements, though it has no color or smell.
Natural hydrogen is very uncommon in the Earth's atmosphere, because nearly all primordial hydrogen would have escaped into space because of its weight. In nature, it is generally in water. Hydrogen is also in all living things, as a part of the organic compounds that living things are made of. In addition, hydrogen atoms can join with carbon atoms to form hydrocarbons. Petroleum and other fossil fuels are made of these hydrocarbons and commonly used to make energy.
Some other facts about hydrogen:
- It is a gas at room temperature
- It acts like a metal when it is solid.
- It is the lightest element in the Universe.
- It is the most common element in the Universe.
- It burns or explodes at temperatures higher than 1000°F / 528°C, such as in fire.
- It glows purple when it is in plasma state.
### Big Bang (or the creation of our universe)
Hydrogen is the simplest element in the universe, made of just one proton and one electron. It is also the most common element, and most of it was formed very early in the history of the universe. Scientists believe that hydrogen was created about three minutes after the Big Bang, when the universe had expanded and cooled enough for protons and neutrons to stick together without being torn apart by high-energy radiation. This moment is known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis.
In the first few seconds after the Big Bang, the universe was so hot that particles like quarks and gluons were free. As things cooled, these particles combined to form protons and neutrons. Because neutrons are less stable, there were fewer of them compared to protons, about one neutron for every six protons. When the universe cooled even more, protons and neutrons could join together to make heavier particles. The first step was forming deuterium, which is one proton plus one neutron. Before this, deuterium could not survive because the universe was still too hot. This stage is called the “deuterium bottleneck.”
Once deuterium could survive, it allowed more nuclear reactions to happen. Most of the neutrons quickly got locked inside helium-4, a stable form of helium. Small amounts of helium-3, lithium-7, and beryllium-7 were also made. However, the majority of matter remained as hydrogen, mostly in the form of single protons. This meant that about 75% of the ordinary matter in the universe was hydrogen. At first, this hydrogen existed as plasma, with free protons and electrons spread everywhere.
It was not until about 380,000 years later that the universe cooled enough for electrons to join protons and form neutral hydrogen atoms. This event is called recombination. Once hydrogen atoms formed, light was able to travel freely through space, making the universe transparent. The leftover glow from this moment is called the cosmic microwave background, and scientists can still detect it today. Almost all hydrogen in the universe comes from this process, and its presence, along with small amounts of deuterium and helium, provides strong evidence that the Big Bang really happened.
### Storage of hydrogen
Hydrogen is being studied as a possible fuel of the future, but one of the hardest parts is figuring out how to store it safely and efficiently. Unlike gasoline or diesel, which are dense liquids, hydrogen is the lightest element in the universe. It exists as a gas made of two atoms (H₂). Because it is so light and has a very low density, storing enough hydrogen in a small space is very hard. It does not dissolve well in liquids either, which means you cannot just “mix” it into something like water or other solvents to store it. For example, at normal room temperature and pressure, only a tiny amount of hydrogen can dissolve in a liquid like diethyl ether. This is why scientists focus on other methods of storage, such as gas, liquid, or solid storage.
One common way to store hydrogen is by compressing it into high-pressure tanks. These tanks can hold hydrogen gas at pressures hundreds of times higher than normal air pressure. Cars that run on hydrogen often use this method. But there are problems. It takes a lot of energy to squeeze hydrogen into these tanks, the tanks themselves are heavy and expensive, and hydrogen is so tiny that it can leak out through materials. Another way is to cool hydrogen down until it becomes a liquid. This makes it much denser and easier to store, but hydrogen only becomes liquid at extremely cold temperatures, almost minus 240 °C. Keeping it that cold requires a lot of energy and special equipment, and liquid hydrogen tends to evaporate (called boil-off), wasting fuel.
Because of these problems, researchers have looked at “hydrogen carriers.” These are substances that can absorb hydrogen, hold onto it, and then release it later when needed. One example is metal hydrides, where hydrogen atoms fit into the tiny spaces inside a metal’s structure. This is useful in some ways, but most metals can only hold a small amount of hydrogen by weight, often just around 1%. Hydrogen can also damage metals, making them weaker in a process called embrittlement, which is a problem for pipes and storage containers.
Other chemical carriers can hold more hydrogen. Ammonia borane, for instance, contains about 20% hydrogen by weight, which is much better. However, once it releases hydrogen, the leftovers can’t easily take hydrogen back in, so the process is one-way and not very practical for long-term use. A more promising idea is using liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). These are special liquids that can absorb hydrogen and then release it when needed, over and over again. The advantage is that they can be stored and transported using the same systems we already use for liquid fuels like gasoline, which makes them easier to fit into today’s infrastructure.
In the end, storing hydrogen is still a big challenge. Compressing and cooling it works but costs a lot of energy. Metals can hold it safely but do not store much. Some chemicals can carry a lot of hydrogen but cannot be reused easily. LOHCs look like one of the better solutions, but they are still being developed. Until scientists find the best balance of safety, efficiency, and cost, hydrogen storage will remain one of the key obstacles in making hydrogen a major energy source for the world.
## Uses of Hydrogen
The most common uses are in the petroleum industry and in making ammonia by the Haber process. Some is used in other places in the chemical industry. A little of it is used as fuel, for example in rockets for spacecraft. Most of the hydrogen that people use comes from a chemical reaction between natural gas and steam.
### Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is a very powerful source of energy. It depends on forcing atoms together to make helium and energy, as in a star like the Sun, or in a hydrogen bomb. This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do currently. A big advantage over nuclear fission, which is used in today's nuclear power stations, is that it makes less nuclear waste and does not use a poisonous and uncommon fuel like uranium. More than 600 million tons of hydrogen undergo fusion every second on the Sun.
### Using hydrogen
Hydrogen is mostly used in the petroleum industry, to change heavy petroleum parts into lighter, more useful ones. It is also used to make ammonia. Smaller amounts are burned as fuel. Most hydrogen is made by a reaction between natural gas and steam.
The electrolysis of water breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen, using electricity. Burning hydrogen joins with oxygen molecules to make steam (natural water vapor). A fuel cell joins hydrogen with an oxygen molecule, releasing an electron as electricity. For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will replace other synthetic fuels in the future.
Hydrogen can also be burned to make heat for steam turbines or internal combustion engines. Like other synthetic fuels, hydrogen can be made from natural fuels such as coal or natural gas, or from electricity, and therefore represents a valuable addition to the power grid; in the same role as natural gas. Such a grid and infrastructure with fuel cell vehicles is now planned by a number of countries, such as Japan, Korea and many European countries. This lets these countries buy less petroleum, which is an economic advantage. The other advantage is that, used in a fuel cell or burned in a combustion engine as in a hydrogen car, the engine does not make pollution. Only water, and a small amount of nitrogen oxides, forms.
## Other websites
- Hydrogen - Citizendium
## Infobox (hydrogen)
|
high
| false
| false
|
357
|
Helium
|
**Helium** is a [chemical element](247). It has the [chemical symbol](53789) **He**, [atomic number](8407) 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602. There are 9 [isotope](3489)s of helium, only two of which are stable. These are <sup>3</sup>He and <sup>4</sup>He. <sup>4</sup>He is by far the most common isotope.
Helium is called a [noble gas](19788), because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new [compounds](6101). It has the lowest [boiling point](21982) of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the [universe](858), after [hydrogen](355), and has no color or smell. However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field. Helium does not usually [react](4891) with anything else. Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the [Sun](44408). This was before its discovery on [Earth](219).
Helium is used to fill [balloon](33369)s and [airship](36902)s because its [density](21342) is lighter than [air](9). It does not burn, so is safe for that kind of use. It is also used in some kinds of [light](3987) bulbs. People can breathe in helium: It makes their [voice](13785)s sound higher than it normally does. This may seem [silly](31723), but it can actually be quite dangerous as if they breathe in too much, [hypoxia](716511) can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to [vocal cords](138520).
Helium is created through the process of [nuclear fusion](28699) in the Sun, and in similar stars. During this process, four hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom. On Earth it is made by the natural [radioactive decay](28153) of heavy radioactive elements like [thorium](42951) and [uranium](19146), although there are other examples. The [alpha particle](177079)s emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.
## History
Helium was discovered by the French astronomer Pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the [spectrum](52402) of the [chromosphere](1007154) of the [Sun](44408). The line was thought to be [sodium](5392). On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (_helios_).
## Characteristics
Helium is the second least reactive [noble gas](19788) after [neon](19782). It is the second least reactive of all elements. It is [chemically inert](59418) and [monatomic](835998) in all standard conditions. Helium is the least [water](939)-[soluble](56966) monatomic gas.
## Uses
Helium is used as a shielding gas in growing [silicon](19785) and [germanium](41406) [crystal](40649)s, in making [titanium](14174) and [zirconium](19591), and in [gas chromatography](294113), because it is [inert](68366). Helium is used as a shielding gas in [arc welding](635597).
Helium is mixed with oxygen and other gases for deep [underwater diving](145340) because it does not cause [nitrogen narcosis](409980).
Helium is also used to [condense](3874) [hydrogen](355) and [oxygen](2949) to make [rocket fuel](649642). It is used to remove the [fuel](4077) and [oxidizer](257938) from ground support equipment before the [rocket](6793) launches. It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches.
Helium is used as a [heat-transfer](465342) medium in some [nuclear reactor](30991)s that are cooled down by [gas](3283). Helium is also used in some hard disk drives. Helium at low [temperature](6329)s is used in [cryogenics](791034).
## Supply
Helium has become rare on Earth. If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet. Unlike [hydrogen](355), which reacts with [oxygen](2949) to form [water](939), helium is not reactive. It stays as a gas. For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve. American helium comes from wells in the [Great Plains](3355) area. At present, more helium is supplied by [Qatar](15245) than by the USA.
Several research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium. These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element. For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for [magnetic resonance imaging](30007).
## Infobox (helium)
- **number**: 02
- **symbol**: He
- **name**: Helium
|
**Helium** is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol **He**, atomic number 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602. There are 9 isotopes of helium, only two of which are stable. These are <sup>3</sup>He and <sup>4</sup>He. <sup>4</sup>He is by far the most common isotope.
Helium is called a noble gas, because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new compounds. It has the lowest boiling point of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen, and has no color or smell. However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field. Helium does not usually react with anything else. Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the Sun. This was before its discovery on Earth.
Helium is used to fill balloons and airships because its density is lighter than air. It does not burn, so is safe for that kind of use. It is also used in some kinds of light bulbs. People can breathe in helium: It makes their voices sound higher than it normally does. This may seem silly, but it can actually be quite dangerous as if they breathe in too much, hypoxia can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to vocal cords.
Helium is created through the process of nuclear fusion in the Sun, and in similar stars. During this process, four hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom. On Earth it is made by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements like thorium and uranium, although there are other examples. The alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.
## History
Helium was discovered by the French astronomer Pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was thought to be sodium. On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (_helios_).
## Characteristics
Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon. It is the second least reactive of all elements. It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas.
## Uses
Helium is used as a shielding gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in making titanium and zirconium, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding.
Helium is mixed with oxygen and other gases for deep underwater diving because it does not cause nitrogen narcosis.
Helium is also used to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is used to remove the fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment before the rocket launches. It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches.
Helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some nuclear reactors that are cooled down by gas. Helium is also used in some hard disk drives. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics.
## Supply
Helium has become rare on Earth. If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet. Unlike hydrogen, which reacts with oxygen to form water, helium is not reactive. It stays as a gas. For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve. American helium comes from wells in the Great Plains area. At present, more helium is supplied by Qatar than by the USA.
Several research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium. These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element. For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging.
## Infobox (helium)
- **number**: 02
- **symbol**: He
- **name**: Helium
|
high
| false
| false
|
358
|
Home page
|
The **home page** of a [website](908) is the document that a [web server](794) sends to another computer's [web browser](912) application when it has been contacted without a request for specific information. That is, when one enters only a [domain name](226826) in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the _home page_ is usually the first part of the website one would be taken to. The Home Page is also called the Main Page.
A properly written home page will tell a user about the information available on the website, and how to view different parts of the website.
The home page of _simple.wikipedia.org_ can be found [at this link.](232335)
**Home Page** was a popular computer application used for composing web pages.
## In Linux servers
In [Linux](3620)-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc. This is a problem for website administrators to install website applications like [MediaWiki](495). Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php for [PHP](20854) applications.
## In Windows servers
Similarly, in [Windows](927)-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc.
|
The **home page** of a website is the document that a web server sends to another computer's web browser application when it has been contacted without a request for specific information. That is, when one enters only a domain name in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the _home page_ is usually the first part of the website one would be taken to. The Home Page is also called the Main Page.
A properly written home page will tell a user about the information available on the website, and how to view different parts of the website.
The home page of _simple.wikipedia.org_ can be found at this link.
**Home Page** was a popular computer application used for composing web pages.
## In Linux servers
In Linux-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc. This is a problem for website administrators to install website applications like MediaWiki. Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php for PHP applications.
## In Windows servers
Similarly, in Windows-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc.
|
medium
| false
| false
|
359
|
Hair
|
**Hair** is something that grows from the [skin](772) of [mammal](525)s. Hair is made of [keratin](67216)s, which are [protein](636)s.
Animal hair is usually called **[fur](15566)**. Sheep and [goat](38207)s have curly hair, called [wool](11125). Wool is used to make many products, like [clothing](4710) and blankets.
[Human](502310)s and some other [animal](62)s have lost much of their hair through [evolution](8740), and some other mammals, such as the [elephant](3495) and the [whale](7597), have almost none at all.
## Functions of hair
Hair has different functions:
- It can protect against losing body heat. This is thought to be the basic, original function of hair.
- It protects against UV [radiation](55918), which damages the skin.
- It can protect against rain or water. Air can be trapped in the fur, or oil can be secreted by the skin. Both these methods prevent the rain or water from making the body too cold. Aquatic mammals in cold waters usually have blubber (fat) under the skin, and almost no hair.
- Defence: hair is modified in mammals like porcupines, for protection.
- Hair colouring can perform different functions. It helps to [camouflage](51517) some animals. It can also signal to others of the same [species](19654). Examples are: signalling to females for mating purposes and signalling to others for territory control. Signalling danger to other species (aposematic colouring) is also done by, for example, [skunk](26105)s.
- Animals can change their hair so they look bigger, or more threatening. This can also be used for mating; which is the case with [lion](5714)s, for example. Also, the male lions' mane also protects their neck from damage when fighting other males.
## False hair
Some animals, for example certain [insect](3750)s and [spider](19903)s also have _hairs_. However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually [bristle](387516)s. The _hairs_ found on certain plants are also not true hair, but [trichome](208187)s.
## Human hair
In [human](502310)s, hair grows mostly on the [head](3459), and the amount of body hair is different from person to person.
During puberty, both men and women experience hair growth, all over their body, especially armpit and pubic hair. However, men develop thicker and more abundant body hair, and develop beards and mustaches, with hairier arms and legs, and they generally grow hair on their chest, abdomen (belly) and back. Women in comparison, have much finer hair with a less abundant distribution.
### Hair color
Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. Natural hair color is passed down [genetically](9424) by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.
[Dye](3883)ing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.
#### Genetics and chemistry
Two types of [melanin](279655) [pigment](52033) give hair its color: _eumelanin_ and _pheomelanin_. Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.
The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.
One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown [allele](115599) and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.
The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.
The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).
### Hair texture
Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women.
### Hair loss
People have in between 90,000 to 130,000 hairs on their head. About 100-150 fall out each day (depending on thickness of hair), but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.
Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as _baldness_. Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.
People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in [chicken](12456) [manure](56756). Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some [drug](9089)s have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.
### History and culture
People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or [beard](94)s, like in [Sikhism](21592), [Judaism](219593) and [Islam](219592)
|
**Hair** is something that grows from the skin of mammals. Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins.
Animal hair is usually called **fur**. Sheep and goats have curly hair, called wool. Wool is used to make many products, like clothing and blankets.
Humans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all.
## Functions of hair
Hair has different functions:
- It can protect against losing body heat. This is thought to be the basic, original function of hair.
- It protects against UV radiation, which damages the skin.
- It can protect against rain or water. Air can be trapped in the fur, or oil can be secreted by the skin. Both these methods prevent the rain or water from making the body too cold. Aquatic mammals in cold waters usually have blubber (fat) under the skin, and almost no hair.
- Defence: hair is modified in mammals like porcupines, for protection.
- Hair colouring can perform different functions. It helps to camouflage some animals. It can also signal to others of the same species. Examples are: signalling to females for mating purposes and signalling to others for territory control. Signalling danger to other species (aposematic colouring) is also done by, for example, skunks.
- Animals can change their hair so they look bigger, or more threatening. This can also be used for mating; which is the case with lions, for example. Also, the male lions' mane also protects their neck from damage when fighting other males.
## False hair
Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have _hairs_. However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The _hairs_ found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes.
## Human hair
In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from person to person.
During puberty, both men and women experience hair growth, all over their body, especially armpit and pubic hair. However, men develop thicker and more abundant body hair, and develop beards and mustaches, with hairier arms and legs, and they generally grow hair on their chest, abdomen (belly) and back. Women in comparison, have much finer hair with a less abundant distribution.
### Hair color
Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. Natural hair color is passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.
Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.
#### Genetics and chemistry
Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: _eumelanin_ and _pheomelanin_. Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.
The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.
One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.
The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.
The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).
### Hair texture
Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women.
### Hair loss
People have in between 90,000 to 130,000 hairs on their head. About 100-150 fall out each day (depending on thickness of hair), but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.
Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as _baldness_. Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.
People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure. Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.
### History and culture
People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism, Judaism and Islam
|
high
| false
| false
|
361
|
Ireland
|
**Ireland** (; ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an [island](367) in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is about 486 [kilometres](417) (302 [miles](501)) long and about 288 kilometres (179 miles) wide.
The island is made up of two [countries](121): the [Republic of Ireland](5074) and [Northern Ireland](3050). Over 5 million people lived on the island in 2023.
### Republic of Ireland
The Republic of Ireland, a [sovereign state](195252), occupies 84% of the island. Its [capital](1968) and largest city is [Dublin](186). La soeur de ilyes elle est grave gentille.
The [official language](4898)s of the Republic are [Irish](24492) and [English](2843). However, only a small part of the population is fluent in Irish or speaks it as their native language. While the Irish language (also called Gaelic) is taught in most schools, most people speak English in their day-to-day lives.
### Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland makes up the remaining 17% of the island. It is located in the [northeast](63655), and is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Its capital and largest city is [Belfast](8561).
### Division
From 1801 to 1921, the entire island of Ireland was one country, called the [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](73355). In 1919 the [Irish War of Independence](73378) began, and on December 6, 1921, the [Irish Free State](73602) became independent.
After a new [constitution](173) came into effect in 1937, the state became a [republic](4978). Northern Ireland remained with the United KIngdom. This would lead to [The Troubles](296962), which began in the 1960s and ended with the Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998.
## Provinces and counties
Ireland is traditionally divided into four [provinces](6617) and thirty-two [counties](5893). Twenty-six counties are in the Republic, and six are in Northern Ireland. Three of the provinces are entirely within the Republic ([Connacht](157811), Leicester and [Munster](365186)). One province ([Ulster](3432)) has counties in both the Republic and in Northern Ireland.
The provinces and their counties are:
- [Connacht](157811) - Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo
- [Leinster](115651) - Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Longford, Louth, [County Meath](404904), Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow
- [Munster](365186) - [Clare](456970), [Cork](53887), Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, Waterford
- [Ulster](3432) - Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan (Republic of Ireland); Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone (Northern Ireland)
### Republic of Ireland
Dublin is the largest city in the Republic. It was established as a [Viking](205979) [settlement](364467) in the [9th century](15635). The [population](4037) is 525,383 in Dublin City, and 1,270,603 in County Dublin.
[Cork](53884) is the largest city in Munster. Corkonians often refer to it as 'the Real Capital'. Following a 2019 Cork boundary extension in 2019, the population increased to around 210,000.
### Northern Ireland
Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. There are 483,000 people in the Greater Belfast urban area, and 267,000 in the city itself. Shipbuilding used to be a major industry here. The _Titanic_ was built in Belfast at the Harland and Wolff [shipyard](384107).
[Derry](14739) (also called Londonderry) is the second largest city in Northern Ireland. Its population is 83,652. Derry is notable for the [medieval](6593) city walls which still stand there. Because the walls have never been breached, the city is nicknamed "The Maiden City". In 2013 Derry was the UK Capital of [Culture](3476), and many cultural events took place throughout the year.
The city of Armagh is often called the 'Ecclesiastic Capital of Ireland' because it is the seat of both the [Catholic Church](10754) and the (Protestant) [Church of Ireland](313236). The population is 14,590.
### Prehistory
During the last [glacial](34576) period (the "[ice age](47635)"), most of Ireland was covered with ice. After the glaciers melted, Ireland became covered with trees, and some trees started becoming bogs -- specifically, raised bogs.
The first people came to Ireland over 12,500 years ago, in the [Palaeolithic](102318) period. They were semi-[nomadic](44323). If food ran out in the place they lived, they would move to another settlement. The first discovered settlement dates from at least 12,500 years ago.
About 4000 BC, in the New Stone Age within the [Neolithic](59670) period, the first farmers arrived in Ireland. These people cleared openings in the forest and built permanent settlements with houses and farmland. The clearing of these trees started creating another type of bog, called blanket bogs.
When people in this age died, they were buried in [tombs](82105) called [megaliths](86656). Many megaliths are still standing today, such as portal dolmens and passage tombs. The most famous megalith is Newgrange passage tomb in County Meath.
### Bronze & Copper Ages
New settlers came around 2000BC, marking the start of the [Bronze Age](5285). [Copper](6709) was [mined](6663) mainly in Mount Gabriel within County Cork, while [tin](19783) was [imported](371878) from [Cornwall](5227). The settlers used bronze to make weapons (like [swords](9713)) and early forms of [jewellery](14050) (like sun discs and torcs). They [buried their dead](49189) in court tombs or wedge tombs, and burial places have been found with stone circles.
### Celts & the Iron Age
It is unknown when the [Celts](49725) came to Ireland, but it is likely they brought the use of [iron](223080) with them. The use of iron marks the start of the [Iron Age](5291).
By about 300BC, the use of iron and Celtic culture was widespread in Ireland. The Celts lived in ring [forts](46449), hill forts, promontory forts and crannógs. Historians think that only the richer families and settlements lived in crannógs. These were man-made islands in the middle of lakes with houses on them.
Celtic Ireland was split into around 150 kingdoms called tuath. The [king](410) was [elected](3790) from the [royal family](22334). Below the king were the Nobles, and the Aos Dána, who were people with special skills, such as [poets](17913), [Druids](102751) ([priests](19070)), [judges](7952) and [craftsmen](421644).
### Christianity
By the early [6th century](15638), [Saint Patrick](5584) and other [missionaries](105320) had [converted](95394) most of Ireland to [Christianity](219595). [Priests](19070) and [monks](14322) replaced Druids. [Monasteries](42054) soon were built, like Glendalough in County Wicklow. Glendalough and other monasteries built round towers to protect them when [Vikings](205979) attacked. Small monasteries were also built in remote places, the most famous being Skellig Michael, off the coast of County Kerry.
At this time, many hand-written [manuscripts](63283) were created by monks in monasteries. Surviving manuscripts include the Cathach, the Book of Durrow, and the Book of Kells. Monks also produced fine silver [chalices](530896), [crosiers](407902) and [brooches](135979), and [carved](835400) high crosses.
### Anglo-Normans
In 1169, [Anglo-Norman](409255) lords [invaded](23403) Ireland. They were led by Strongbow, who landed at Passage East in County [Waterford](138376). The Anglo-Normans conquered many parts of Ireland in the following 60 years. They introduced their way of life to the Irish people.
Castles were built to defend the land, like Trim Castle in County Meath. During the [Middle Ages](6593), Ireland's first proper towns were built.
The [feudal system](52474) was soon introduced in Ireland as a means of organising land. By the 1550s and the 1650s, four [plantations](373792) had taken place in Ireland.
### Partition
From 1801 until 1921, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1921 Northern Ireland was created and 'partitioned' from the south. Northern Ireland has stayed within the United Kingdom since then.
In 1921 the south became the [Irish Free State](73602). In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new [constitution](173), which named the state '[Ireland](5074)'. In 1948 the State passed the Republic of Ireland Act, declaring itself a [republic](4978).
## Migration
Many Irish people have [left Ireland and moved](112427) to the [United States](219587), [Canada](219589), [Australia](27), and [South America](1989). The Great Famine (which lasted from 1845 to 1849) killed up to a million Irish people by [starvation](5548) and forced a million more to emigrate in order to survive.
From a maximum of over 8 million in 1841, the total Irish population dropped to just over 4 million in the 1940s. Since then, it has increased to over 6 million. This population increase has been supported by the economic growth of the "Celtic Tiger" and (since 2004) immigration from countries in [Eastern Europe](45071) like [Poland](3045).
Today almost 80 million people around the world are descended from [Irish immigants](27370).
## Climate
Ireland has an [oceanic climate](451608).
The highest [temperature](6329) ever recorded in Ireland was , on 16 July 1876 in [Dublin](186).
### Top 5 warmest days
|Rank|Temperature|Date|Location|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.||16 July 1876|[Dublin](186)|
|2.||18 July 2022|Allenwood|
|3.||26 June 1887|[Kilkenny](138949)|
|4.||2 August 1990|[Limerick](84672)|
|5.||17 July 2022|Allenwood|
## Sports
Ireland's main sports are [soccer](2062) and [Gaelic Games](78390) (mainly [Gaelic football](78419), [hurling](78339), and [camogie](78368)). Other sports that are
played and followed in Ireland include [horse racing](93661), [show jumping](379631), [greyhound racing](394860), [basketball](7500), [fishing](10000), [handball](25628), motorsport, [mixed martial arts](31326), [boxing](16259), target [shooting](313429), and [tennis](20314).
[Hockey](18268), [golf](3950), [rowing](42914), [cricket](3762), [rugby union](70537), and [Olympic](5290) target shooting are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing the whole of Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as soccer and [netball](8404), have separate organizing bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
As Northern Ireland is a constituent nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympic Games, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either Ireland or Great Britain.
Soccer is the most popular team sport in terms of participation. According to the Irish Sports Monitor 2015 annual report, 4.8% of adults over 15 participate in Soccer. Gaelic football 2%, camogie 1.2, rugby 1.1%. Individual exercise pursuits are most popular with 43% of all sport participated by individuals on their own. Personal exercise 13.7%, running 8.2%, swimming 8%, cycling 5.5%, dancing 3%, golf 2.7%, weights 2.3%, yoga 1.5% and pilates 1.4%.
Soccer is by far the most popular team pursuit for males at 8.8% with Gaelic football attracting 3.4%. Personal exercise 13.4% and running 8.9% are the most popular male activities. Team sports do not figure highly amongst females with dancing at 4.6% and yoga 2.4% are two of the highest shared activities.
Given the variety of sports in Ireland, it is of interest to note how the government's Capital Sports programme 2017 allocated it's €56 million funds. €23.5 million went to the GAA which highlights the strength of the GAA lobby. €7.25 million to soccer, Rugby €3.1 million, tennis €2.64 million, golf €1.97 million, sailing €1.21 million, athletics just under €1 million, diving €451,000 while other sports did not fare so well.
Gaelic Football is one of the most popular sports in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and in 2003 had 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. Initiative's ViewerTrack study, which measured 2005 sports audiences, showed the sport's highest-profile match, the All-Ireland Football Final, to be the most watched event of the nation's sporting year. Soccer is the most played team sport in Ireland.
## Facts
- The [flag](6440) colours of the Republic of Ireland are green, white and orange.
- Symbols of Ireland include the [shamrock](384279) and the [harp](19456).
- Popular games in Ireland include [Gaelic football](78419) and [hurling](78339).
- The population of the Republic of Ireland is around 4.7 million.
- The president of the Republic of Ireland is Michael D. Higgins.
- The two parts of Ireland are the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
- The [River Shannon](297117), which runs from north to south, is the longest river on the island. Ireland has many lakes and [Lough Neagh](107219), in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland. Ireland is known for its landscapes, music, history, and [mythology](3356).
- The Great Potato Famine (1845 - 1849) was very bad; about 1 million people died.
- As a result of the Great Potato Famine (G.P.F.), the population of Ireland was cut in half from both death and emigration.
- the population of Ireland is roughly 5 million whilst northern Ireland is almost 2 million
- around 17.5% of Americans have Irish descendants.
|
**Ireland** (; ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is about 486 kilometres (302 miles) long and about 288 kilometres (179 miles) wide.
The island is made up of two countries: the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Over 5 million people lived on the island in 2023.
### Republic of Ireland
The Republic of Ireland, a sovereign state, occupies 84% of the island. Its capital and largest city is Dublin. La soeur de ilyes elle est grave gentille.
The official languages of the Republic are Irish and English. However, only a small part of the population is fluent in Irish or speaks it as their native language. While the Irish language (also called Gaelic) is taught in most schools, most people speak English in their day-to-day lives.
### Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland makes up the remaining 17% of the island. It is located in the northeast, and is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Its capital and largest city is Belfast.
### Division
From 1801 to 1921, the entire island of Ireland was one country, called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1919 the Irish War of Independence began, and on December 6, 1921, the Irish Free State became independent.
After a new constitution came into effect in 1937, the state became a republic. Northern Ireland remained with the United KIngdom. This would lead to The Troubles, which began in the 1960s and ended with the Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998.
## Provinces and counties
Ireland is traditionally divided into four provinces and thirty-two counties. Twenty-six counties are in the Republic, and six are in Northern Ireland. Three of the provinces are entirely within the Republic (Connacht, Leicester and Munster). One province (Ulster) has counties in both the Republic and in Northern Ireland.
The provinces and their counties are:
- Connacht - Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo
- Leinster - Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Longford, Louth, County Meath, Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow
- Munster - Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, Waterford
- Ulster - Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan (Republic of Ireland); Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone (Northern Ireland)
### Republic of Ireland
Dublin is the largest city in the Republic. It was established as a Viking settlement in the 9th century. The population is 525,383 in Dublin City, and 1,270,603 in County Dublin.
Cork is the largest city in Munster. Corkonians often refer to it as 'the Real Capital'. Following a 2019 Cork boundary extension in 2019, the population increased to around 210,000.
### Northern Ireland
Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. There are 483,000 people in the Greater Belfast urban area, and 267,000 in the city itself. Shipbuilding used to be a major industry here. The _Titanic_ was built in Belfast at the Harland and Wolff shipyard.
Derry (also called Londonderry) is the second largest city in Northern Ireland. Its population is 83,652. Derry is notable for the medieval city walls which still stand there. Because the walls have never been breached, the city is nicknamed "The Maiden City". In 2013 Derry was the UK Capital of Culture, and many cultural events took place throughout the year.
The city of Armagh is often called the 'Ecclesiastic Capital of Ireland' because it is the seat of both the Catholic Church and the (Protestant) Church of Ireland. The population is 14,590.
### Prehistory
During the last glacial period (the "ice age"), most of Ireland was covered with ice. After the glaciers melted, Ireland became covered with trees, and some trees started becoming bogs -- specifically, raised bogs.
The first people came to Ireland over 12,500 years ago, in the Palaeolithic period. They were semi-nomadic. If food ran out in the place they lived, they would move to another settlement. The first discovered settlement dates from at least 12,500 years ago.
About 4000 BC, in the New Stone Age within the Neolithic period, the first farmers arrived in Ireland. These people cleared openings in the forest and built permanent settlements with houses and farmland. The clearing of these trees started creating another type of bog, called blanket bogs.
When people in this age died, they were buried in tombs called megaliths. Many megaliths are still standing today, such as portal dolmens and passage tombs. The most famous megalith is Newgrange passage tomb in County Meath.
### Bronze & Copper Ages
New settlers came around 2000BC, marking the start of the Bronze Age. Copper was mined mainly in Mount Gabriel within County Cork, while tin was imported from Cornwall. The settlers used bronze to make weapons (like swords) and early forms of jewellery (like sun discs and torcs). They buried their dead in court tombs or wedge tombs, and burial places have been found with stone circles.
### Celts & the Iron Age
It is unknown when the Celts came to Ireland, but it is likely they brought the use of iron with them. The use of iron marks the start of the Iron Age.
By about 300BC, the use of iron and Celtic culture was widespread in Ireland. The Celts lived in ring forts, hill forts, promontory forts and crannógs. Historians think that only the richer families and settlements lived in crannógs. These were man-made islands in the middle of lakes with houses on them.
Celtic Ireland was split into around 150 kingdoms called tuath. The king was elected from the royal family. Below the king were the Nobles, and the Aos Dána, who were people with special skills, such as poets, Druids (priests), judges and craftsmen.
### Christianity
By the early 6th century, Saint Patrick and other missionaries had converted most of Ireland to Christianity. Priests and monks replaced Druids. Monasteries soon were built, like Glendalough in County Wicklow. Glendalough and other monasteries built round towers to protect them when Vikings attacked. Small monasteries were also built in remote places, the most famous being Skellig Michael, off the coast of County Kerry.
At this time, many hand-written manuscripts were created by monks in monasteries. Surviving manuscripts include the Cathach, the Book of Durrow, and the Book of Kells. Monks also produced fine silver chalices, crosiers and brooches, and carved high crosses.
### Anglo-Normans
In 1169, Anglo-Norman lords invaded Ireland. They were led by Strongbow, who landed at Passage East in County Waterford. The Anglo-Normans conquered many parts of Ireland in the following 60 years. They introduced their way of life to the Irish people.
Castles were built to defend the land, like Trim Castle in County Meath. During the Middle Ages, Ireland's first proper towns were built.
The feudal system was soon introduced in Ireland as a means of organising land. By the 1550s and the 1650s, four plantations had taken place in Ireland.
### Partition
From 1801 until 1921, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1921 Northern Ireland was created and 'partitioned' from the south. Northern Ireland has stayed within the United Kingdom since then.
In 1921 the south became the Irish Free State. In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new constitution, which named the state 'Ireland'. In 1948 the State passed the Republic of Ireland Act, declaring itself a republic.
## Migration
Many Irish people have left Ireland and moved to the United States, Canada, Australia, and South America. The Great Famine (which lasted from 1845 to 1849) killed up to a million Irish people by starvation and forced a million more to emigrate in order to survive.
From a maximum of over 8 million in 1841, the total Irish population dropped to just over 4 million in the 1940s. Since then, it has increased to over 6 million. This population increase has been supported by the economic growth of the "Celtic Tiger" and (since 2004) immigration from countries in Eastern Europe like Poland.
Today almost 80 million people around the world are descended from Irish immigants.
## Climate
Ireland has an oceanic climate.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was , on 16 July 1876 in Dublin.
### Top 5 warmest days
|Rank|Temperature|Date|Location|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.||16 July 1876|Dublin|
|2.||18 July 2022|Allenwood|
|3.||26 June 1887|Kilkenny|
|4.||2 August 1990|Limerick|
|5.||17 July 2022|Allenwood|
## Sports
Ireland's main sports are soccer and Gaelic Games (mainly Gaelic football, hurling, and camogie). Other sports that are
played and followed in Ireland include horse racing, show jumping, greyhound racing, basketball, fishing, handball, motorsport, mixed martial arts, boxing, target shooting, and tennis.
Hockey, golf, rowing, cricket, rugby union, and Olympic target shooting are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing the whole of Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as soccer and netball, have separate organizing bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
As Northern Ireland is a constituent nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympic Games, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either Ireland or Great Britain.
Soccer is the most popular team sport in terms of participation. According to the Irish Sports Monitor 2015 annual report, 4.8% of adults over 15 participate in Soccer. Gaelic football 2%, camogie 1.2, rugby 1.1%. Individual exercise pursuits are most popular with 43% of all sport participated by individuals on their own. Personal exercise 13.7%, running 8.2%, swimming 8%, cycling 5.5%, dancing 3%, golf 2.7%, weights 2.3%, yoga 1.5% and pilates 1.4%.
Soccer is by far the most popular team pursuit for males at 8.8% with Gaelic football attracting 3.4%. Personal exercise 13.4% and running 8.9% are the most popular male activities. Team sports do not figure highly amongst females with dancing at 4.6% and yoga 2.4% are two of the highest shared activities.
Given the variety of sports in Ireland, it is of interest to note how the government's Capital Sports programme 2017 allocated it's €56 million funds. €23.5 million went to the GAA which highlights the strength of the GAA lobby. €7.25 million to soccer, Rugby €3.1 million, tennis €2.64 million, golf €1.97 million, sailing €1.21 million, athletics just under €1 million, diving €451,000 while other sports did not fare so well.
Gaelic Football is one of the most popular sports in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and in 2003 had 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. Initiative's ViewerTrack study, which measured 2005 sports audiences, showed the sport's highest-profile match, the All-Ireland Football Final, to be the most watched event of the nation's sporting year. Soccer is the most played team sport in Ireland.
## Facts
- The flag colours of the Republic of Ireland are green, white and orange.
- Symbols of Ireland include the shamrock and the harp.
- Popular games in Ireland include Gaelic football and hurling.
- The population of the Republic of Ireland is around 4.7 million.
- The president of the Republic of Ireland is Michael D. Higgins.
- The two parts of Ireland are the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
- The River Shannon, which runs from north to south, is the longest river on the island. Ireland has many lakes and Lough Neagh, in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland. Ireland is known for its landscapes, music, history, and mythology.
- The Great Potato Famine (1845 - 1849) was very bad; about 1 million people died.
- As a result of the Great Potato Famine (G.P.F.), the population of Ireland was cut in half from both death and emigration.
- the population of Ireland is roughly 5 million whilst northern Ireland is almost 2 million
- around 17.5% of Americans have Irish descendants.
|
high
| false
| false
|
362
|
Internet
|
The **Internet** is the world’s largest global communication [network](537) for computers and other devices.
It connects many smaller networks from homes, schools, businesses, and governments. These networks share different kinds of [information](3609). The short form of the Internet is “the Net.” One of its most popular services is the [World Wide Web](905), which is used by billions of people every day.
The Internet was developed in the [United States](219587) by the Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency ([DARPA](616085)). The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called [ARPANET](327824). The World Wide Web was created at [CERN](127727) in [Switzerland](2161) in 1990 by a [British](856) (UK) [scientist](748) named [Tim Berners-Lee](48005).
Today, people use Internet services by paying Internet service providers (ISPs).
Some websites and tools are free, while others may show ads to earn money. There are also ongoing debates about censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet.
## Services
The Internet is used for many things, such as [electronic mail](19235), online chat, [file](101185) transfer and other documents of the [World Wide Web](905).
The most used service on the Internet is the [World Wide Web](905) (which is also called the "Web" or “www”). The web contains [website](908)s, including social media, [blog](115426)s, and [wiki](907)s like [Wikipedia](27263). [Webpage](924)s on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a [password](294878), or it is blocked).
The second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. [Instant messaging](21656) is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster.
Some governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it. For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in [China](120) can read it or add to it. Another example of the internet being blocked is in [North Korea](4074). Some [parent](26183)s and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for [child](7681)ren to see.
## Dangers
The Internet makes communication easy. Yet, communication can be dangerous, too. People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information. They can use the Internet to spread lies, steal secrets, or give dangerously bad advice. For example, [Facebook](123387) has had some problems with [privacy](602643) settings.
- Some websites may trick people into [download](3625)ing [viruses](12549) that can harm a computer, or [spyware](41813) that spies on its users (looks at what they are doing and tells someone else).
- E-mails can have harmful files with them as "attachments".
- In internet chatrooms, people might be preying on others or trying to [stalk](20670) or [abuse](23865) them.
- The Internet contains content that many people find [offensive](129679) , as well as content intended to be offensive.
- Criminals may [steal people's personal information](131141) or [trick people into sending them money](187485).
## Outline and overview
The **Internet** is a worldwide network of interconnected [computer network](316702)s that transmit [data](1001437) by [packet switching](609072) using the standard [Internet Protocol](17473) (IP). It is a "network of networks" that has millions of interconnected smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various [information](3609) and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, [file](101185) transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the [World Wide Web](905). The general public are allowed to use the internet, in almost all countries.
Internet has these features,
- Hosting –
- [File hosting](418811) –
- [Web hosting](335685)
- E-mail hosting
- DNS hosting
- Game servers (related page, [Server](794))
- [Wiki farm](514014)s
- [World Wide Web](905) –
- [Website](908)s –
- [Web application](275495)s –
- [Webmail](186378) –
- [Online shopping](317631) –
- Online auctions –
- Webcomics –
- [Wiki](907)s –
- Voice over IP, such as [Skype](87144)
- IPTV, or [Internet Protocol television](723798)
- Onion (the darknet)
Internet communication technology:
Internet infrastructure:
- Critical Internet infrastructure, the [physical](24909) systems that provide internet communication. It includes networking cables ([picture](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Network_cables)), cellular towers ([picture](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_tower_aerial.jpg)), [server](794), internet exchange points ([picture](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Servers)), [data center](590008)s, and individual computers.
- Internet access ([picture](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internet_access))
- [Internet service provider](16976) –
- Internet backbone –
- Internet exchange point (IXP) –
- Internet standard –
- Request for Comments (RFC) –
Internet communication protocols:
[Internet protocol suite](45296) –
Link layer –
- [Address Resolution Protocol](443229) (ARP/InARP) –
- Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) –
- [Open Shortest Path First](636924) (OSPF) –
- Tunneling protocol (Tunnels) –
- Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) –
- Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) –
- [Medium access control](80370) –
- [Ethernet](19798) –
- [Digital subscriber line](159351) (DSL) –
- [Integrated Services Digital Network](184361) (ISDN) –
- Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) –
Internet layer –
- [Internet Protocol](17473) (IP) –
- IPv4 –
- IPv6 –
- Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) –
- ICMPv6 –
- Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) –
- [IPsec](139612) –
Transport layer –
- [Transmission Control Protocol](151618) (TCP) –
- [User Datagram Protocol](152514) (UDP) –
- Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) –
- Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) –
- Resource reservation protocol (RSVP) –
- Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) –
- QUIC
Application layer –
- [Border Gateway Protocol](172119) (BGP) –
- [Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol](26766) (DHCP) –
- [Domain Name System](164363) (DNS) –
- File Transfer Protocol (FTP) –
- [Hypertext Transfer Protocol](19797) (HTTP) –
- [Internet Message Access Protocol](247548) (IMAP) –
- [Internet Relay Chat](16377) (IRC) –
- LDAP –
- Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) –
- [Network News Transfer Protocol](380887) (NNTP) –
- [Network Time Protocol](140920) (NTP) –
- [Post Office Protocol](156711) (POP) –
- Routing Information Protocol (RIP) –
- Remote procedure call (RPC) –
- [Real-time Transport Protocol](984501) (RTP) –
- Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) –
- [Simple Mail Transfer Protocol](324666) (SMTP) –
- [Simple Network Management Protocol](155413) (SNMP) –
- [SOCKS](94294) –
- [Secure Shell](135758) (SSH) –
- [Telnet](109220) –
- [Transport Layer Security](100312) (TLS/SSL) –
- [Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol](125565) (XMPP) –
## Related pages
- [Hotspot (computers)](14450)
- Mobile communication
- [Internet protocol](17473)
- IP Address
- IETF
- [Communications satellite](304561)
- [Media studies](175860)
- [World Wide Web](905)
- [ARPANET](327824)
- Darknet
- [Deep web](455771)
- [Internet video](931917)
|
The **Internet** is the world’s largest global communication network for computers and other devices.
It connects many smaller networks from homes, schools, businesses, and governments. These networks share different kinds of information. The short form of the Internet is “the Net.” One of its most popular services is the World Wide Web, which is used by billions of people every day.
The Internet was developed in the United States by the Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called ARPANET. The World Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) scientist named Tim Berners-Lee.
Today, people use Internet services by paying Internet service providers (ISPs).
Some websites and tools are free, while others may show ads to earn money. There are also ongoing debates about censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet.
## Services
The Internet is used for many things, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and other documents of the World Wide Web.
The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the "Web" or “www”). The web contains websites, including social media, blogs, and wikis like Wikipedia. Webpages on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked).
The second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. Instant messaging is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster.
Some governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it. For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it. Another example of the internet being blocked is in North Korea. Some parents and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for children to see.
## Dangers
The Internet makes communication easy. Yet, communication can be dangerous, too. People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information. They can use the Internet to spread lies, steal secrets, or give dangerously bad advice. For example, Facebook has had some problems with privacy settings.
- Some websites may trick people into downloading viruses that can harm a computer, or spyware that spies on its users (looks at what they are doing and tells someone else).
- E-mails can have harmful files with them as "attachments".
- In internet chatrooms, people might be preying on others or trying to stalk or abuse them.
- The Internet contains content that many people find offensive , as well as content intended to be offensive.
- Criminals may steal people's personal information or trick people into sending them money.
## Outline and overview
The **Internet** is a worldwide network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a "network of networks" that has millions of interconnected smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. The general public are allowed to use the internet, in almost all countries.
Internet has these features,
- Hosting –
- File hosting –
- Web hosting
- E-mail hosting
- DNS hosting
- Game servers (related page, Server)
- Wiki farms
- World Wide Web –
- Websites –
- Web applications –
- Webmail –
- Online shopping –
- Online auctions –
- Webcomics –
- Wikis –
- Voice over IP, such as Skype
- IPTV, or Internet Protocol television
- Onion (the darknet)
Internet communication technology:
Internet infrastructure:
- Critical Internet infrastructure, the physical systems that provide internet communication. It includes networking cables (picture), cellular towers (picture), server, internet exchange points (picture), data centers, and individual computers.
- Internet access (picture)
- Internet service provider –
- Internet backbone –
- Internet exchange point (IXP) –
- Internet standard –
- Request for Comments (RFC) –
Internet communication protocols:
Internet protocol suite –
Link layer –
- Address Resolution Protocol (ARP/InARP) –
- Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) –
- Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) –
- Tunneling protocol (Tunnels) –
- Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) –
- Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) –
- Medium access control –
- Ethernet –
- Digital subscriber line (DSL) –
- Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) –
- Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) –
Internet layer –
- Internet Protocol (IP) –
- IPv4 –
- IPv6 –
- Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) –
- ICMPv6 –
- Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) –
- IPsec –
Transport layer –
- Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) –
- User Datagram Protocol (UDP) –
- Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) –
- Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) –
- Resource reservation protocol (RSVP) –
- Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) –
- QUIC
Application layer –
- Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) –
- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) –
- Domain Name System (DNS) –
- File Transfer Protocol (FTP) –
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) –
- Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) –
- Internet Relay Chat (IRC) –
- LDAP –
- Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) –
- Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) –
- Network Time Protocol (NTP) –
- Post Office Protocol (POP) –
- Routing Information Protocol (RIP) –
- Remote procedure call (RPC) –
- Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) –
- Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) –
- Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) –
- Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) –
- SOCKS –
- Secure Shell (SSH) –
- Telnet –
- Transport Layer Security (TLS/SSL) –
- Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) –
## Related pages
- Hotspot (computers)
- Mobile communication
- Internet protocol
- IP Address
- IETF
- Communications satellite
- Media studies
- World Wide Web
- ARPANET
- Darknet
- Deep web
- Internet video
|
high
| false
| false
|
363
|
Italy
|
**Italy** ( [iˈtaːlja]) is a [country](121) in [Southern Europe](45230) with small island territories in [North Africa](19031). It is a founding member of the [European Union](2132) and a member of the [G7](722717), as it has the eighth largest [gross domestic product](3759) in the world. Italy's official name is the **Italian Republic** (). The Italian flag is green, white and red. Italy is a [democratic republic](391729). In [2025](189004) Italy's president is [Sergio Mattarella](480165). Its prime minister is [Giorgia Meloni](624327).
Italy has become famous for [Italian food](373165) and wine. Some foods are different between regions. Famous dishes include various types of [pasta](47141), [pizza](13967), and [grape](15731)s. [Olives](45573) are also often used.
Before [Italian unification](15455) in 1861, Italy was made up of smaller kingdoms and [city-state](65885)s.
The country's capital, [Rome](2875), is one of the most famous cities in the world. It was the capital of the [Roman Empire](664). Other famous cities in Italy include [Venice](5198), [Naples](5199), [Turin](11262), [Genoa](33340), [Florence](5200), [Palermo](20288), and [Milan](5201).
## Geography
Italy is a [peninsula](3690). It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side. Northern Italy is separated from [France](291), [Switzerland](2161), and [Austria](55) by the [Alps](15938), a chain of mountains. [Mont Blanc](35262) (_Monte Bianco_ in Italian or _white mountain_ in English), the highest mountain in [Western Europe](45219), is in this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy.
The Po River is the longest river in Italy. It flows through 5 cities: [Turin](11262), [Piacenza](139327), [Cremona](35402), and [Ferrara](46136). The [Tiber River](144969) runs through the city of [Rome](2875).
Northern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as [Lake Garda](29826), [Lake Como](83620), [Lake Maggiore](83623) and [Lake Iseo](192216). Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has a very long [coast](7717), which brings [tourists](9185) from all over the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's [historical](324) places.
The country has a number of islands, the biggest of which are [Sicily](15605) and [Sardinia](30990), which can be reached by ship or [aircraft](4701). Italy has a border at sea with [Libya](14617) to the south.
### Political geography
The capital of Italy is Rome. This is where the Roman Empire started. Other large cities in Italy include [Milan](5201), [Naples](5199), [Turin](11262), [Florence](5200), [Palermo](20288), and [Venice](5198).
Two [enclave](21933)s (separate countries) are located within Italy. They are [San Marino](6240), which is surrounded by Northern Italy, and the [Vatican City](897), which is surrounded by the city of Rome. Vatican City is also the only enclave in the world to also be surrounded by a city.
## Climate
Italy has both an [oceanic climate](451608) and [continental climate](127027).
The highest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 25 June 2007 in [Foggia](111693).
The lowest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 10 February 2013 at Pale di San Martino
## People and culture
People from Italy are called [Italians](388). Even if an Italian were to leave Italy, it is possible that their descendants could also claim Italian [citizenship](3494). This is because of Italian nationality law relying mostly on _ius sanguinis,_ or "right of blood" in Latin. Almost all Italians are [Christian](170)s. Most of these are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism is based in the [Vatican City](897), which is home to its leader, the [Pope](4681).
The [population](4037) of Italy is about 60 million people. Almost 3 million of them live in [Rome](2875), and 1.5 million in [Milan](5201). As of December 2015, over 5 million foreigners were living in Italy, which is 8.3% of the total population.
The official language of Italy is [Italian](8249). German, Slovenian, French, and a few others are also recognized. People also speak [dialect](21596)s of Italian such as Sicilian and Sardinian. There are many different dialects spoken in Italy. They vary between regions and sometimes between provinces.
The people of Italy are mostly [descendant](48135) from the [ancient Romans](24298).
Italy is home to more [World Heritage Site](29360)s than any other country in the world. These sites are culturally important and valued according to [UNESCO](13920). About 60% of the works of [art](6) of the world are in Italy. Italy is also a big [wine](935) producer. In 2005, it made over 5 million tonnes of wine.
Linguistic minorities in Italy include Sardu-speakers 1 million, Tyrolese German-speakers 350,000, Albanians 70,000 – 100,000, Slovenes 60,000, Franco-Provençal-speakers 50,000 – 70,000, Occitans 20,000 – 40,000, Ladins 30,000, Catalans 15,000, Greek-speakers 12,000 and Croatians 3,000, as well as Friulians 600,000. The [Roma](89852) community in Italy is one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country. Italy has a growing immigrant population. This foreign population includes Romanians 1,190,100, Albanians 440,500, Moroccans 416,500, Ukrainians 237,000, Chinese 290,700, Filipinos 167,900 and Indians 151,800.
### Food
A partial list of famous Italian foods include [pasta](47141), [pizza](13967), [risotto](183063), [polenta](664141), gelato and [gnocchi](840162).
### Art
Many notable artists were from Italy. They include:
- [Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio](115392), painter
- [Donatello](78345), sculptor
- [Leonardo da Vinci](4654), painter
- [Michelangelo](4653), sculptor and painter
- [Amedeo Modigliani](479622), painter
- [Raphael](27240), painter
- [Titian](338357), painter
## Economy
Italy has a modern social welfare system. The labor market is very strong. Many foreigners, especially from [Romania](2124), work in Italy where the wages are much higher.
Italy's modern society has been built up through loans. Now the country has a very high [debt](19145) of 1.9 trillion euros or 120% of the country's total [GDP](3759).
## Religion
Most people in Italy are Roman Catholics, but the Catholic Church is no longer officially the [state religion](54491). Around 50% of the people said they were Roman Catholic.
Only about a third said they were active members (40%). There are also other Christian groups in Italy, with more than 700,000 [Eastern Orthodox Christians](7270). 180,000 of them belong to the [Greek Orthodox Church](415943).
550,000 are [Pentecostals](61939) and [Evangelicals](48246) (0.8%). 235,685 [Jehovah's Witnesses](7765) (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 20,000 [Baptist](56746)s, 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists.
The country's oldest religious minority is the [Jewish](219593) community. It has about 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group. There are also about 50,000 [Buddhists](3496) 70,000 Muslims and 70,000 [Hindus](5961) in Italy.
## Major cities
- [Rome](2875)
- [Venice](5198)
- [Milan](5201)
- [Naples](5199)
- [Turin](11262)
- [Florence](5200)
- [Bologna](36602)
- [Palermo](20288)
- [Trieste](32823)
- [Bari](61529)
## Regions
Italy has 20 regions (). Every region is divided into [provinces](6617).
There are 20 regions. Five of them have a special status, called _autonomous_. This means that they can make certain local laws more easily. These regions are marked with an [asterisk](518243) (*) below.
|width="120"|[Region](11705)|width="80"|Capital|width="90"|[Area](3926) (km²)|width="80"|[Population](4037)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|[Abruzzo](29101)|[L'Aquila](35067)|style="text-align:right"|10,763|style="text-align:right"|1,305,770|||
|[Aosta Valley](35255)*|[Aosta](378378)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Apulia](35063)|[Bari](61529)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Basilicata](34939)|[Potenza](35089)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Calabria](22977)|[Catanzaro](36316)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Campania](34941)|[Naples](5199)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Emilia-Romagna](34945)|[Bologna](36602)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Friuli-Venezia Giulia*|[Trieste](32823)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Lazio](33554)|[Rome](2875)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Liguria](33341)|[Genoa](33340)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Lombardy](11704)|[Milan](5201)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Marche](35252)|[Ancona](35593)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Molise](34819)|[Campobasso](589260)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Piedmont](14421)|[Turin](11262)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Sardinia](30990)*|[Cagliari](111690)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Sicily](15605)*|[Palermo](20288)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Tuscany](34825)|[Florence](5200)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Trentino-Alto Adige](64122)*|[Trento](100787)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Umbria](35253)|[Perugia](35416)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|[Veneto](34817)|[Venice](5198)|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
## Politics
The [head of state](4866) is [Sergio Mattarella](480165). He became President of the Italian Republic in February 2015. The first president was [Enrico De Nicola](899688).
The [head of government](5014) is [Giorgia Meloni](624327). She became [Prime Minister](3598) on October 22, 2022, the first woman in that role. She [succeeded](319442) [Mario Draghi](821081). Draghi's [cabinet](7664), fell after support for his coalition fell.
Italy was one of the first members of the [European Union](2132). In 2002 along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the [euro](2139) as its official [currency](2140). Before this, the [Italian lira](843273) had been used since 1861.
Anyone who wants to be President of Italy must have Italian citizenship, be at least 50 years old, and must be able to uphold political and civil rights.
## History
The capital of Italy is [Rome](2875), a city that was founded in 753 BC. The [Roman Kingdom](270716), [Roman Republic](41095) and [Roman Empire](664) in a series of wars conquered various neighbors, including the [Etruscan civilization](47163) in the north and the states in the south known as [Magna Graecia](418644).
Before 1861, Italy was not a [state](798). The area included a group of separate states that were ruled by other countries (such as [Austria](55), [France](291), and [Spain](219832)). In the 1850s, [Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour](477989) was the head of government of the "State of Sardinia." He told the Austrians in Lombardy and Veneto that they should fight to create a state in Northern Italy. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also joined Piedmont to create a bigger state.
### Kingdom of Italy
In 1860, [Giuseppe Garibaldi](41486) took control of Sicily, creating the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. [Victor Emmanuel II](446132) was made the king. In 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were ruled by the [Pope](4681) and [Austrian Empire](72111).
Veneto was made part of Italy in 1866 after a war with Austria. Italian soldiers won Latium in 1870 and they took away the Pope's power. The Pope, who was angry, said that he was a prisoner to keep [Catholic](7160) people from being active in politics. That year, [Italian unification](15455) was mostly complete.
Italy participated in [World War I](219834) as an ally of the [United Kingdom](3051), France, and [Russia](2964) against the [Central Powers](40033). Almost all of Italy's fighting was on the eastern [border](21682), near Austria. After the defeat at the Battle of Caporetto, Italy could have lost the war to [Austria-Hungary](40951), but in 1918, the Central Powers [surrendered](190718). Italy gained the Trentino and South Tyrol, which had been part of Austria.
### Fascist Italy
In 1922, a new Italian government started that was ruled by [Benito Mussolini](6754), the leader of [fascism](15210) in Italy. He became [head of government](5014) and [dictator](34324), calling himself "Il Duce" (which means "[leader](3616)" in [Italian](8249)). He became friends with the German dictator, [Adolf Hitler](4457). [Germany](15678), [Japan](69465), and Italy entered the [Axis powers](6777). In 1940, they entered [World War II](219837) together against France, the [United Kingdom](856), and later the [Soviet Union](3600). During the war, Italy controlled most of the [Mediterranean Sea](7621).
On July 25, 1943, Mussolini was removed by the Great Council of Fascism. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio said that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the United Kingdom, but Italian soldiers did not know whom to shoot. In Northern Italy, The [Italian resistance movement](757510) started to fight against the German [invaders](23403). On April 25, 1945, much of Italy had become free, while Mussolini ruled a small Northern Italian [fascist](15210) state that was a German [puppet state](6755), called the Republic of Salò. The fascist state failed, and Mussolini tried to flee to [Switzerland](2161) and escape to [Francoist Spain](15526), but he was captured by Italian partisans. On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was executed by a [partisan](567341).
### Postwar
The state became a republic on June 2, 1946. For the first time, women were allowed to vote. The Italian people ended the [monarchy](4073) and adopted a [republican](4978) form of government.
In February of 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the [Allies](16631). Italy lost all of its colonies and some territorial areas ([Istria](115301) and parts of [Dalmatia](114745)).
Italy joined [NATO](24563) and the [European Economic Community](503382), both as a founding member. The country has one of the seven largest industrial economies in the world.
## Transportation
The [railway](12308) [network](191995) in Italy totals , the 17th longest in the world. [High speed trains](148044) include ETR-class trains, which travel at speeds of up to .
## Related pages
- [Italy at the Olympics](319909)
- [Italy national football team](172959)
- Italian cuisine
- [Italophilia](396050)
- [Italian Mare Nostrum](120040)
- [List of rivers of Italy](337229)
## Other websites
- [Official tourism website](http://www.italia.it/en)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Italian Republic
- **common name**: Italy
- **image flag**: Flag of Italy.svg
- **image coat**: Italy-Emblem.svg
- **symbol type**: Emblem
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: EU-Italy.svg
- **capital**: Rome
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: Italian language, Italian
- **demonym**: Italians, Italian
- **leader title1**: President of Italy, President
- **leader name1**: Sergio Mattarella
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Italy, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Giorgia Meloni
- **leader title3**: List of Presidents of the Senate of Italy, President of the Senate
- **leader name3**: Ignazio La Russa
- **leader title4**: List of Presidents of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, President of the Chamber of Deputies
- **leader name4**: Lorenzo Fontana
- **legislature**: Parliament of Italy, Parliament
- **upper house**: Italian Senate, Senate of the Republic
- **lower house**: Italian Chamber of Deputies, Chamber of Deputies
- **sovereignty type**: History of Italy, Formation
- **established event1**: Italian unification, Unification
- **established date1**: 17 March 1861
- **established event2**: Italian constitutional referendum, 1946, Republic
- **established date2**: 2 June 1946
- **established date3**: 1 January 1958
- **area km2**: 301,338
- **area rank**: 71st
- **area sq mi**: 116,347
- **percent water**: 2.4
- **population estimate**: 60,589,445
- **population estimate year**: 31.12.2016
- **population estimate rank**: 23rd
- **population density km2**: 201.3
- **population density sq mi**: 521.5
- **population density rank**: 63rd
- **gdp ppp**: $2.234 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2016
- **gdp ppp rank**: 12th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $36,833
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 32nd
- **gdp nominal**: $1.850 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2016
- **gdp nominal rank**: 8th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $30,507
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 25th
- **gini**: 32.4
- **gini year**: 2015
- **hdi**: 0.906
- **hdi year**: 2022
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 26th
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)<sup>b</sup>
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy (Anno Domini, AD)
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Italy, +39<sup>c</sup>
- **cctld**: .it<sup>d</sup>
- **footnote a**: <span style="font-size:100%;">German is co-official in South Tyrol; French is co-official in the Aosta Valley; Slovene language, Slovene is co-official in the province of Trieste and the province of Gorizia; Ladin language, Ladin is co-official in South Tyrol, in Trentino and in other northern areas.</span>
- **footnote b**: <span style="font-size:100%;">Before 2002, the Italian lira. The euro is accepted in Campione d'Italia, but its official currency is the Swiss franc.</span>
- **footnote c**: <span style="font-size:100%;">To call Campione d'Italia, it is necessary to use the Swiss code +41.</span>
- **footnote d**: <span style="font-size:100%;">The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.</span>
|
**Italy** ( [iˈtaːlja]) is a country in Southern Europe with small island territories in North Africa. It is a founding member of the European Union and a member of the G7, as it has the eighth largest gross domestic product in the world. Italy's official name is the **Italian Republic** (). The Italian flag is green, white and red. Italy is a democratic republic. In 2025 Italy's president is Sergio Mattarella. Its prime minister is Giorgia Meloni.
Italy has become famous for Italian food and wine. Some foods are different between regions. Famous dishes include various types of pasta, pizza, and grapes. Olives are also often used.
Before Italian unification in 1861, Italy was made up of smaller kingdoms and city-states.
The country's capital, Rome, is one of the most famous cities in the world. It was the capital of the Roman Empire. Other famous cities in Italy include Venice, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Florence, Palermo, and Milan.
## Geography
Italy is a peninsula. It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side. Northern Italy is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria by the Alps, a chain of mountains. Mont Blanc (_Monte Bianco_ in Italian or _white mountain_ in English), the highest mountain in Western Europe, is in this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy.
The Po River is the longest river in Italy. It flows through 5 cities: Turin, Piacenza, Cremona, and Ferrara. The Tiber River runs through the city of Rome.
Northern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as Lake Garda, Lake Como, Lake Maggiore and Lake Iseo. Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has a very long coast, which brings tourists from all over the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's historical places.
The country has a number of islands, the biggest of which are Sicily and Sardinia, which can be reached by ship or aircraft. Italy has a border at sea with Libya to the south.
### Political geography
The capital of Italy is Rome. This is where the Roman Empire started. Other large cities in Italy include Milan, Naples, Turin, Florence, Palermo, and Venice.
Two enclaves (separate countries) are located within Italy. They are San Marino, which is surrounded by Northern Italy, and the Vatican City, which is surrounded by the city of Rome. Vatican City is also the only enclave in the world to also be surrounded by a city.
## Climate
Italy has both an oceanic climate and continental climate.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 25 June 2007 in Foggia.
The lowest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 10 February 2013 at Pale di San Martino
## People and culture
People from Italy are called Italians. Even if an Italian were to leave Italy, it is possible that their descendants could also claim Italian citizenship. This is because of Italian nationality law relying mostly on _ius sanguinis,_ or "right of blood" in Latin. Almost all Italians are Christians. Most of these are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism is based in the Vatican City, which is home to its leader, the Pope.
The population of Italy is about 60 million people. Almost 3 million of them live in Rome, and 1.5 million in Milan. As of December 2015, over 5 million foreigners were living in Italy, which is 8.3% of the total population.
The official language of Italy is Italian. German, Slovenian, French, and a few others are also recognized. People also speak dialects of Italian such as Sicilian and Sardinian. There are many different dialects spoken in Italy. They vary between regions and sometimes between provinces.
The people of Italy are mostly descendant from the ancient Romans.
Italy is home to more World Heritage Sites than any other country in the world. These sites are culturally important and valued according to UNESCO. About 60% of the works of art of the world are in Italy. Italy is also a big wine producer. In 2005, it made over 5 million tonnes of wine.
Linguistic minorities in Italy include Sardu-speakers 1 million, Tyrolese German-speakers 350,000, Albanians 70,000 – 100,000, Slovenes 60,000, Franco-Provençal-speakers 50,000 – 70,000, Occitans 20,000 – 40,000, Ladins 30,000, Catalans 15,000, Greek-speakers 12,000 and Croatians 3,000, as well as Friulians 600,000. The Roma community in Italy is one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country. Italy has a growing immigrant population. This foreign population includes Romanians 1,190,100, Albanians 440,500, Moroccans 416,500, Ukrainians 237,000, Chinese 290,700, Filipinos 167,900 and Indians 151,800.
### Food
A partial list of famous Italian foods include pasta, pizza, risotto, polenta, gelato and gnocchi.
### Art
Many notable artists were from Italy. They include:
- Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, painter
- Donatello, sculptor
- Leonardo da Vinci, painter
- Michelangelo, sculptor and painter
- Amedeo Modigliani, painter
- Raphael, painter
- Titian, painter
## Economy
Italy has a modern social welfare system. The labor market is very strong. Many foreigners, especially from Romania, work in Italy where the wages are much higher.
Italy's modern society has been built up through loans. Now the country has a very high debt of 1.9 trillion euros or 120% of the country's total GDP.
## Religion
Most people in Italy are Roman Catholics, but the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. Around 50% of the people said they were Roman Catholic.
Only about a third said they were active members (40%). There are also other Christian groups in Italy, with more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians. 180,000 of them belong to the Greek Orthodox Church.
550,000 are Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%). 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 20,000 Baptists, 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists.
The country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community. It has about 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group. There are also about 50,000 Buddhists 70,000 Muslims and 70,000 Hindus in Italy.
## Major cities
- Rome
- Venice
- Milan
- Naples
- Turin
- Florence
- Bologna
- Palermo
- Trieste
- Bari
## Regions
Italy has 20 regions (). Every region is divided into provinces.
There are 20 regions. Five of them have a special status, called _autonomous_. This means that they can make certain local laws more easily. These regions are marked with an asterisk (*) below.
|width="120"|Region|width="80"|Capital|width="90"|Area (km²)|width="80"|Population|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Abruzzo|L'Aquila|style="text-align:right"|10,763|style="text-align:right"|1,305,770|||
|Aosta Valley*|Aosta|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Apulia|Bari|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Basilicata|Potenza|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Calabria|Catanzaro|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Campania|Naples|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Emilia-Romagna|Bologna|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Friuli-Venezia Giulia*|Trieste|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Lazio|Rome|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Liguria|Genoa|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Lombardy|Milan|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Marche|Ancona|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Molise|Campobasso|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Piedmont|Turin|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Sardinia*|Cagliari|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Sicily*|Palermo|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Tuscany|Florence|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Trentino-Alto Adige*|Trento|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Umbria|Perugia|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
|Veneto|Venice|style="text-align:right"||style="text-align:right"||||
## Politics
The head of state is Sergio Mattarella. He became President of the Italian Republic in February 2015. The first president was Enrico De Nicola.
The head of government is Giorgia Meloni. She became Prime Minister on October 22, 2022, the first woman in that role. She succeeded Mario Draghi. Draghi's cabinet, fell after support for his coalition fell.
Italy was one of the first members of the European Union. In 2002 along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the euro as its official currency. Before this, the Italian lira had been used since 1861.
Anyone who wants to be President of Italy must have Italian citizenship, be at least 50 years old, and must be able to uphold political and civil rights.
## History
The capital of Italy is Rome, a city that was founded in 753 BC. The Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire in a series of wars conquered various neighbors, including the Etruscan civilization in the north and the states in the south known as Magna Graecia.
Before 1861, Italy was not a state. The area included a group of separate states that were ruled by other countries (such as Austria, France, and Spain). In the 1850s, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour was the head of government of the "State of Sardinia." He told the Austrians in Lombardy and Veneto that they should fight to create a state in Northern Italy. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also joined Piedmont to create a bigger state.
### Kingdom of Italy
In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi took control of Sicily, creating the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Victor Emmanuel II was made the king. In 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were ruled by the Pope and Austrian Empire.
Veneto was made part of Italy in 1866 after a war with Austria. Italian soldiers won Latium in 1870 and they took away the Pope's power. The Pope, who was angry, said that he was a prisoner to keep Catholic people from being active in politics. That year, Italian unification was mostly complete.
Italy participated in World War I as an ally of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia against the Central Powers. Almost all of Italy's fighting was on the eastern border, near Austria. After the defeat at the Battle of Caporetto, Italy could have lost the war to Austria-Hungary, but in 1918, the Central Powers surrendered. Italy gained the Trentino and South Tyrol, which had been part of Austria.
### Fascist Italy
In 1922, a new Italian government started that was ruled by Benito Mussolini, the leader of fascism in Italy. He became head of government and dictator, calling himself "Il Duce" (which means "leader" in Italian). He became friends with the German dictator, Adolf Hitler. Germany, Japan, and Italy entered the Axis powers. In 1940, they entered World War II together against France, the United Kingdom, and later the Soviet Union. During the war, Italy controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea.
On July 25, 1943, Mussolini was removed by the Great Council of Fascism. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio said that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the United Kingdom, but Italian soldiers did not know whom to shoot. In Northern Italy, The Italian resistance movement started to fight against the German invaders. On April 25, 1945, much of Italy had become free, while Mussolini ruled a small Northern Italian fascist state that was a German puppet state, called the Republic of Salò. The fascist state failed, and Mussolini tried to flee to Switzerland and escape to Francoist Spain, but he was captured by Italian partisans. On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was executed by a partisan.
### Postwar
The state became a republic on June 2, 1946. For the first time, women were allowed to vote. The Italian people ended the monarchy and adopted a republican form of government.
In February of 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the Allies. Italy lost all of its colonies and some territorial areas (Istria and parts of Dalmatia).
Italy joined NATO and the European Economic Community, both as a founding member. The country has one of the seven largest industrial economies in the world.
## Transportation
The railway network in Italy totals , the 17th longest in the world. High speed trains include ETR-class trains, which travel at speeds of up to .
## Related pages
- Italy at the Olympics
- Italy national football team
- Italian cuisine
- Italophilia
- Italian Mare Nostrum
- List of rivers of Italy
## Other websites
- Official tourism website
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Italian Republic
- **common name**: Italy
- **image flag**: Flag of Italy.svg
- **image coat**: Italy-Emblem.svg
- **symbol type**: Emblem
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: EU-Italy.svg
- **capital**: Rome
- **largest city**: capital
- **official languages**: Italian language, Italian
- **demonym**: Italians, Italian
- **leader title1**: President of Italy, President
- **leader name1**: Sergio Mattarella
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Italy, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Giorgia Meloni
- **leader title3**: List of Presidents of the Senate of Italy, President of the Senate
- **leader name3**: Ignazio La Russa
- **leader title4**: List of Presidents of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, President of the Chamber of Deputies
- **leader name4**: Lorenzo Fontana
- **legislature**: Parliament of Italy, Parliament
- **upper house**: Italian Senate, Senate of the Republic
- **lower house**: Italian Chamber of Deputies, Chamber of Deputies
- **sovereignty type**: History of Italy, Formation
- **established event1**: Italian unification, Unification
- **established date1**: 17 March 1861
- **established event2**: Italian constitutional referendum, 1946, Republic
- **established date2**: 2 June 1946
- **established date3**: 1 January 1958
- **area km2**: 301,338
- **area rank**: 71st
- **area sq mi**: 116,347
- **percent water**: 2.4
- **population estimate**: 60,589,445
- **population estimate year**: 31.12.2016
- **population estimate rank**: 23rd
- **population density km2**: 201.3
- **population density sq mi**: 521.5
- **population density rank**: 63rd
- **gdp ppp**: $2.234 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2016
- **gdp ppp rank**: 12th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $36,833
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 32nd
- **gdp nominal**: $1.850 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2016
- **gdp nominal rank**: 8th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $30,507
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 25th
- **gini**: 32.4
- **gini year**: 2015
- **hdi**: 0.906
- **hdi year**: 2022
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 26th
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)<sup>b</sup>
- **currency code**: EUR
- **time zone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **time zone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **date format**: dd/mm/yyyy (Anno Domini, AD)
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Italy, +39<sup>c</sup>
- **cctld**: .it<sup>d</sup>
- **footnote a**: <span style="font-size:100%;">German is co-official in South Tyrol; French is co-official in the Aosta Valley; Slovene language, Slovene is co-official in the province of Trieste and the province of Gorizia; Ladin language, Ladin is co-official in South Tyrol, in Trentino and in other northern areas.</span>
- **footnote b**: <span style="font-size:100%;">Before 2002, the Italian lira. The euro is accepted in Campione d'Italia, but its official currency is the Swiss franc.</span>
- **footnote c**: <span style="font-size:100%;">To call Campione d'Italia, it is necessary to use the Swiss code +41.</span>
- **footnote d**: <span style="font-size:100%;">The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.</span>
|
high
| false
| false
|
364
|
If
|
**If** is a word to describe a statement where one thing depends on something else.
For example:
- We can call this true _if_ there is proof.
- We will play outside _if_ it does not rain.
---
***If*** is also a poem written by [Rudyard Kipling](657). It appeared in the _Brother Square Toes_ chapter of Kipling's book _Rewards and Fairies_. In a [1995](3959) [BBC](3374) opinion poll, it was voted [Britain's](105) favourite poem. It is arguably Kipling's most famous poem.
|
**If** is a word to describe a statement where one thing depends on something else.
For example:
- We can call this true _if_ there is proof.
- We will play outside _if_ it does not rain.
---
***If*** is also a poem written by Rudyard Kipling. It appeared in the _Brother Square Toes_ chapter of Kipling's book _Rewards and Fairies_. In a 1995 BBC opinion poll, it was voted Britain's favourite poem. It is arguably Kipling's most famous poem.
|
high
| false
| false
|
367
|
Island
|
An **island** is a piece of [land](20961) that is surrounded by a [body of water](791674) such as a [lake](4031), [river](673), [sea](420870) or [ocean](103595). Islands are smaller than [continent](117)s. Although there are many Islands that are surrounded by fresh water, the vast majority of them are surrounded by oceans.
[Greenland](3599) and [Australia](27) are huge islands, but they are built of continental rock, and the latter is generally considered a continent. The most ancient part of continental rock is far older and chemically more complex than the rock of the sea floor.
The heart of continents is their [craton](301343)s, which are the most ancient and stable parts of the [Earth's crust](43183). In the cratons are all the rare elements needed for electronic equipment. They were swept up as the [Sun](44408) moved through areas where supernovae had exploded. The rare elements we need were all got indirectly from supernovae explosions. The Sun's energy comes from turning hydrogen into helium.
There are some islands which do have rare elements, and that is a sign that they were once part of a large [supercontinent](180540). So [Great Britain](3051) was once part of a supercontinent. The oldest rocks are 2,700 million years old, and include many rare elements only found in cratons. Britain is a snapped-off piece of the _[Old Red Sandstone](288957) continent_, now known as [Laurasia](258004).
Other islands that were formed from the ocean floor, as [Japan](403), and [Hawaii](332) were, lack most of the rare elements. Japan has for many years since WWII imported iron ore from [Australia](27). Its seizing of [Manchukuo](80257) (~[Manchuria](23414)) and the infamous attack on Pearl Harbour no doubt had many reasons. Lack of raw materials was one of these Now it looks for potential in its nearby deep-sea muds.
### In Europe
- [Great Britain](3051) 218,995 km²
- [Iceland](2979) 101,826 km²
- [Ireland](361) 81,638 km²
- The island in the north of Novaja Zemlja 47,079 km²
- [Spitsbergen](707624) 38,981 km²
- The island in the south of Novaja Zemlja 33,246 km²
- [Sicily](15605) 25,662 km²
- [Sardinia](30990) 23,812 km²
- [Nordaustlandet](707669) (archipelago of [Svalbard](21390), [Norway](3460)) 14,247 km²
- [Corsica](45231) 8,741 km²
### Other places
- [Australia](27) 7,662,000 km²
- [Cyprus](4097) 9,234 km²
- [Greenland](3599) 2,130,800 km²
- [New Guinea](31570) 785,753 km²
- [Borneo](105404) 748,138 km²
- [Madagascar](7776) 587,041 km²
- [Baffin](105409) 507,451 km²
- [Sumatra](55351) 442,658 km²
- Honshu 233,000 km2
- [Victoria Island](110228) 217,000 km2
- [Ellesmere Island](110270) 196,000 km2
|
An **island** is a piece of land that is surrounded by a body of water such as a lake, river, sea or ocean. Islands are smaller than continents. Although there are many Islands that are surrounded by fresh water, the vast majority of them are surrounded by oceans.
Greenland and Australia are huge islands, but they are built of continental rock, and the latter is generally considered a continent. The most ancient part of continental rock is far older and chemically more complex than the rock of the sea floor.
The heart of continents is their cratons, which are the most ancient and stable parts of the Earth's crust. In the cratons are all the rare elements needed for electronic equipment. They were swept up as the Sun moved through areas where supernovae had exploded. The rare elements we need were all got indirectly from supernovae explosions. The Sun's energy comes from turning hydrogen into helium.
There are some islands which do have rare elements, and that is a sign that they were once part of a large supercontinent. So Great Britain was once part of a supercontinent. The oldest rocks are 2,700 million years old, and include many rare elements only found in cratons. Britain is a snapped-off piece of the _Old Red Sandstone continent_, now known as Laurasia.
Other islands that were formed from the ocean floor, as Japan, and Hawaii were, lack most of the rare elements. Japan has for many years since WWII imported iron ore from Australia. Its seizing of Manchukuo (~Manchuria) and the infamous attack on Pearl Harbour no doubt had many reasons. Lack of raw materials was one of these Now it looks for potential in its nearby deep-sea muds.
### In Europe
- Great Britain 218,995 km²
- Iceland 101,826 km²
- Ireland 81,638 km²
- The island in the north of Novaja Zemlja 47,079 km²
- Spitsbergen 38,981 km²
- The island in the south of Novaja Zemlja 33,246 km²
- Sicily 25,662 km²
- Sardinia 23,812 km²
- Nordaustlandet (archipelago of Svalbard, Norway) 14,247 km²
- Corsica 8,741 km²
### Other places
- Australia 7,662,000 km²
- Cyprus 9,234 km²
- Greenland 2,130,800 km²
- New Guinea 785,753 km²
- Borneo 748,138 km²
- Madagascar 587,041 km²
- Baffin 507,451 km²
- Sumatra 442,658 km²
- Honshu 233,000 km2
- Victoria Island 217,000 km2
- Ellesmere Island 196,000 km2
|
medium
| false
| false
|
370
|
Interim
|
An **interim** is a period of temporary pause or change in a sequence of events, or a temporary state, and is often applied to transitional political entities.
**Interim** may also refer to:
## Temporary organizational arrangements (general concept)
- [Provisional government](371774), emergency government during the creation, collapse, or crisis of a state; also called interim government
- Caretaker government, temporary rule between governments in a parliamentary democracy; also called interim government
- [Acting president](787528), interim head of a state
- Acting (law), designation of a person temporarily exercising the authority of any position
- Interim management, in business
### Provisional and interim governments and constitutions
- [Articles of Confederation](101168), United States 1781–1788
- Interim government of California, 1846–1850
- Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, 1861–1862
- Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, 1912–1931
- Dáil Constitution, Ireland 1918–1921
- Interim National Assembly (Czechoslovakia), 1945–1946
- Interim Government of India, 1946–1947
- Provisional Constitution of 1950, Indonesia 1950–1959
- Interim Constitution of Tanzania, 1964–1977
- Interim presidency of Suharto, Indonesia 1967–1968
- Interim Constitution of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (1974), from 1974
- Interim Batasang Pambansa, government of the Philippines 1978–1984
- Interim Government of Iran 1979–80, also covered by Interim Government of Iran (1979–80),
- Interim Government of Iran (1981)
- Interim Parliament of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 1983
- Transitional Government of Ethiopia, 1991–1995
- Interim Government of Somalia, 1991–1996
- Interim National Government, Nigeria 1993
- Interim Constitution (South Africa), 1994–1997
- National Transitional Council (Congo), 1997–2001
- Joint Interim Administrative Structure, Kosovo 2000–2001
- Afghan Interim Administration, 2001–2002
- Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004–2005
- Iraqi Interim Government, 2005
- Iraqi Transitional Government, 2005–2006
- Interim National Constitution of the Republic of Sudan, 2005
- 2006 interim constitution of Thailand and 2006 Thai interim civilian government
- Interim Cabinet of Fiji, 2007
- 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, 2011–2012
- National Transitional Council, Libya 2011–2012
- Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration, from 2011
- Regmi interim cabinet, Nepal 2013–2014
- Interim Government of Ambazonia, from 2017
- 2020 interim government of Kyrgyzstan
#### Specific states generally
- Interrex (English: "between kings"), office in the Roman Kingdom and Republic, a type of [regent](103069)
- Caretaker government of Australia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Caretaker government of Bangladesh, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Caretaker government of Malaysia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Caretaker Prime Minister of Pakistan, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Interim and Acting President of Israel
- Interim leader (Canada), a temporary party leader appointed upon the resignation or death of a party leader
#### Specific caretaker interim governments
- Churchill caretaker ministry, United Kingdom 1945
- Iraqi Governing Council, government under the Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004–2005 (see above)
- Interim legislature of Nepal, from 2009
- Interim Cabinet of Panagiotis Pikrammenos in Greece, 2012
- 2015 interim election government of Turkey
- Caretaker Government of Myanmar (2021), from 2021
- **Sub-state entities**
- Interim East Punjab Assembly, 1947–1951
- Interim Morgan Government, Wales 2000
- Interim Uttarakhand Assembly, Indian state of Uttarakhand 2000–2002
- Ituri Interim Administration, government of the Ituri region of the Congo, from 2003
- Syrian Interim Government, government of some parts of Syria from 2013
- Bangsamoro Interim Cabinet, government of Bangsamoro in the Philippines from 2018
### Temporary peaces
- Regensburg Interim, 1542 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
- Augsburg Interim, 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
- Leipzig Interim, another 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
- Interim Peace between Finland and the USSR 1940–1941
### Diplomacy
- _Chargé d'affaires ad interim_, temporary head of a diplomatic mission
- Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers, 1945, also called the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers
- Interim Agreement, commonly known as the Oslo Accords, relating to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, commonly known as the Oslo II Accord
- Sinai Interim Agreement, also known as the Sinai II Agreement, between Egypt and Israel 1975
- Interim Self Governing Authority, 2003 Tamil proposal
- Geneva interim agreement on Iranian nuclear program, 2013, commonly known as the Joint Plan of Action
### Other
- Interim Committee, precursor to the American Atomic Energy Commission 1945–1946
- Interim Independent Electoral Commission (Kenya), 2009–2011
- Interim Committee on Un-American Activities, commonly known as the Canwell Committee, legislative committee of Washington State in the United States, 1947–1949
- Nassau Interim Finance Authority, from 2000, New York State commission
- Interim Climate Change Committee, New Zealand 2018–2019
## Legal concepts and procedures
- Interim order, court order in effect pending outcome of a case
- Interim trustee, concept in United States bankruptcy law
- Interim appeal, a partial appeal in United States law
- Interim interdict in Scots law, a temporary injunction
- Judicial interim release, part of Canadian bail law
## Peacekeeping forces
- United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, from 1978
- United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei in Sudan, from 2011
## Sports
- [Caretaker manager](1077906), temporary manager of a soccer team; also called interim manager
- Interim championship, temporary world championship in boxing and other contact sports
- IFA Interim Intermediate League, Ireland 2008–2009
## The arts
- _Interim_ (film), 1953 short film by Stan Brakhage
- _Interim_ (album), 2004 album by British rock band The Fall
- _Interim Resurgence_, 1985 album by Zoogz Rift
- INTERIM-Theater in Munich
## Other
- Interim analysis, in science, analysis of incomplete data
- Interim state, in some religious thought, an intermediate state between one's death and the End Times
- Interim alternative educational setting, in American education, temporary placement for a special-needs student
- Interim Housing, in China, provision for temporarily displaced persons
- MCC Interim Linux, provisional software release 1992
- Institute of Interim Management, United Kingdom
- Interim Fast Attack Vehicle, American scout vehicle
- Interim Control Module, NASA machine
- Interim Capability for Airborne Networking, United States Air Force process
- [Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera](869185), taxonomic database
- Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia
## Related pages
- Ad interim, Latin phrase for "in the meantime"
- Interim velim a sole mihi non obstes ("In the meantime, don't block my sun")
- [Regent](103069), temporary ruler standing in for monarch currently unable to exercise rule
- Locum tenens, a person who temporarily fulfills the duties of another
|
An **interim** is a period of temporary pause or change in a sequence of events, or a temporary state, and is often applied to transitional political entities.
**Interim** may also refer to:
## Temporary organizational arrangements (general concept)
- Provisional government, emergency government during the creation, collapse, or crisis of a state; also called interim government
- Caretaker government, temporary rule between governments in a parliamentary democracy; also called interim government
- Acting president, interim head of a state
- Acting (law), designation of a person temporarily exercising the authority of any position
- Interim management, in business
### Provisional and interim governments and constitutions
- Articles of Confederation, United States 1781–1788
- Interim government of California, 1846–1850
- Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, 1861–1862
- Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, 1912–1931
- Dáil Constitution, Ireland 1918–1921
- Interim National Assembly (Czechoslovakia), 1945–1946
- Interim Government of India, 1946–1947
- Provisional Constitution of 1950, Indonesia 1950–1959
- Interim Constitution of Tanzania, 1964–1977
- Interim presidency of Suharto, Indonesia 1967–1968
- Interim Constitution of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (1974), from 1974
- Interim Batasang Pambansa, government of the Philippines 1978–1984
- Interim Government of Iran 1979–80, also covered by Interim Government of Iran (1979–80),
- Interim Government of Iran (1981)
- Interim Parliament of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 1983
- Transitional Government of Ethiopia, 1991–1995
- Interim Government of Somalia, 1991–1996
- Interim National Government, Nigeria 1993
- Interim Constitution (South Africa), 1994–1997
- National Transitional Council (Congo), 1997–2001
- Joint Interim Administrative Structure, Kosovo 2000–2001
- Afghan Interim Administration, 2001–2002
- Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004–2005
- Iraqi Interim Government, 2005
- Iraqi Transitional Government, 2005–2006
- Interim National Constitution of the Republic of Sudan, 2005
- 2006 interim constitution of Thailand and 2006 Thai interim civilian government
- Interim Cabinet of Fiji, 2007
- 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, 2011–2012
- National Transitional Council, Libya 2011–2012
- Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration, from 2011
- Regmi interim cabinet, Nepal 2013–2014
- Interim Government of Ambazonia, from 2017
- 2020 interim government of Kyrgyzstan
#### Specific states generally
- Interrex (English: "between kings"), office in the Roman Kingdom and Republic, a type of regent
- Caretaker government of Australia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Caretaker government of Bangladesh, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Caretaker government of Malaysia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Caretaker Prime Minister of Pakistan, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
- Interim and Acting President of Israel
- Interim leader (Canada), a temporary party leader appointed upon the resignation or death of a party leader
#### Specific caretaker interim governments
- Churchill caretaker ministry, United Kingdom 1945
- Iraqi Governing Council, government under the Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004–2005 (see above)
- Interim legislature of Nepal, from 2009
- Interim Cabinet of Panagiotis Pikrammenos in Greece, 2012
- 2015 interim election government of Turkey
- Caretaker Government of Myanmar (2021), from 2021
- **Sub-state entities**
- Interim East Punjab Assembly, 1947–1951
- Interim Morgan Government, Wales 2000
- Interim Uttarakhand Assembly, Indian state of Uttarakhand 2000–2002
- Ituri Interim Administration, government of the Ituri region of the Congo, from 2003
- Syrian Interim Government, government of some parts of Syria from 2013
- Bangsamoro Interim Cabinet, government of Bangsamoro in the Philippines from 2018
### Temporary peaces
- Regensburg Interim, 1542 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
- Augsburg Interim, 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
- Leipzig Interim, another 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
- Interim Peace between Finland and the USSR 1940–1941
### Diplomacy
- _Chargé d'affaires ad interim_, temporary head of a diplomatic mission
- Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers, 1945, also called the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers
- Interim Agreement, commonly known as the Oslo Accords, relating to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, commonly known as the Oslo II Accord
- Sinai Interim Agreement, also known as the Sinai II Agreement, between Egypt and Israel 1975
- Interim Self Governing Authority, 2003 Tamil proposal
- Geneva interim agreement on Iranian nuclear program, 2013, commonly known as the Joint Plan of Action
### Other
- Interim Committee, precursor to the American Atomic Energy Commission 1945–1946
- Interim Independent Electoral Commission (Kenya), 2009–2011
- Interim Committee on Un-American Activities, commonly known as the Canwell Committee, legislative committee of Washington State in the United States, 1947–1949
- Nassau Interim Finance Authority, from 2000, New York State commission
- Interim Climate Change Committee, New Zealand 2018–2019
## Legal concepts and procedures
- Interim order, court order in effect pending outcome of a case
- Interim trustee, concept in United States bankruptcy law
- Interim appeal, a partial appeal in United States law
- Interim interdict in Scots law, a temporary injunction
- Judicial interim release, part of Canadian bail law
## Peacekeeping forces
- United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, from 1978
- United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei in Sudan, from 2011
## Sports
- Caretaker manager, temporary manager of a soccer team; also called interim manager
- Interim championship, temporary world championship in boxing and other contact sports
- IFA Interim Intermediate League, Ireland 2008–2009
## The arts
- _Interim_ (film), 1953 short film by Stan Brakhage
- _Interim_ (album), 2004 album by British rock band The Fall
- _Interim Resurgence_, 1985 album by Zoogz Rift
- INTERIM-Theater in Munich
## Other
- Interim analysis, in science, analysis of incomplete data
- Interim state, in some religious thought, an intermediate state between one's death and the End Times
- Interim alternative educational setting, in American education, temporary placement for a special-needs student
- Interim Housing, in China, provision for temporarily displaced persons
- MCC Interim Linux, provisional software release 1992
- Institute of Interim Management, United Kingdom
- Interim Fast Attack Vehicle, American scout vehicle
- Interim Control Module, NASA machine
- Interim Capability for Airborne Networking, United States Air Force process
- Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera, taxonomic database
- Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia
## Related pages
- Ad interim, Latin phrase for "in the meantime"
- Interim velim a sole mihi non obstes ("In the meantime, don't block my sun")
- Regent, temporary ruler standing in for monarch currently unable to exercise rule
- Locum tenens, a person who temporarily fulfills the duties of another
|
medium
| false
| false
|
371
|
Idiom
|
An **idiom** is a common [phrase](3825) which means something different from its literal meaning but can be understood because of their popular use.
Idioms are difficult for someone not good at speaking the language. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom _shape up or ship out_, which is like saying _improve your behavior or leave if you don't_, might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people.
Idioms are not the same thing as [slang](717). Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known to almost everyone. Slang is usually special words, or special meanings of normal words that are known only to a particular group of people.
To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture from which the idiom comes.
To know the history of an idiom can be useful and interesting. For example, most native British English speakers know that "No room to swing a cat" means "there was not much space" and can use the idiom properly. However, few know this is because 200 years ago sailors were punished by being whipped with a "[cat o' nine tails](460487)". A big space was cleared on the ship so that the person doing the whipping had room to _swing the cat_.
An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of each word taken separately. The linguist's term for the real meaning of an idiom is the ***subtext***.
## Definition
Idioms are phrases or expressions that have a figurative meaning different from their literal interpretation. They are commonly used in everyday language to convey a specific idea, often with cultural or historical significance. Idioms are not meant to be taken literally, and their meaning can be understood only by familiarizing oneself with their usage and context.
## Some common idioms
- _Break a leg_
- A way to wish someone good luck.
- _To live it up_
- To enjoy life, to live widely
- _To kick the [bucket](18534)_
- To die.
- _Shape up or [ship](5816) out_
- Used to tell someone that they should leave if they don't improve their [behavior](19502) or performance
- _Learn the ropes_
- Learn and often perfect the [skill](21759)s of a [craft](4669), job, etc.
- _Mad as a [hat](22904)ter
- Mentally unstable, especially as the result of poisoning.
- _To shed [crocodile](15061) tears_
- To cry about something but without actually caring.
- _Wild [goose](21963) chase_
- A useless journey or pursuit.
- _Nothing burger_
- An idea or promise without substance_
- _There's no room to swing a cat_
- There is not a lot of space.
- _To pay through the nose_
- To pay a lot of money, more than is normal.
- _Cost an arm and a leg_
- Be extremely expensive.
- _To bark up the wrong tree_
- To choose the wrong course of action.
- _To spill the beans_
- To tell a secret.
- _It's raining cats and dogs_
- It's raining heavily.
- _To get into hot water_
- To get into trouble.
- _Skate on thin ice_
- To disregard caution.
- _[Chicken](12456)-hearted_
- [Frighten](14172)ed or cowardly
- _To chicken out_
- Not doing a thing, because of [fear](14172).
- _Top dog_
- Leader.
- _To smell a rat_
- To think that something is wrong.
- _To give up_
- To quit.
- _To give up on_
- To stop believing in something or someone.
- _I could eat a horse_
- I am very hungry.
- _To be on top of the world_
- To be really happy.
- _Once in a blue moon_
- Rarely
- _Wouldn't touch with a ten-foot pole!_ (Or _barge pole_ in [British English](83))
- Not wanting anything to do with something or someone.
- _Avoid like the plague_
- Avoid at any cost.
- _Miss the boat_
- Be too late for a chance or opportunity.
- _Child's play_
- Easy to do.
- _Cakewalk_
- Something easy to accomplish.
- _Chinese puzzle_
- Extremely difficult task.
- _Castle in the clouds_ or _pie in the sky_
- An impossible or improbable [dream](40063), project, etc.
- _Hit the sack_
- To go to [bed](1992)
- _Get\give the sack_
- Dismiss or be dismissed from one's employment.
- _The whole nine yards_
- Everything
- _Bells and whistles_
- All the unnecessary luxuries, features, etc
- _Turn a blind eye \ deaf ear_
- To ignore.
- _Cry wolf_
- Report a false emergency.
- One's _cup of tea_
- What someone prefers.
- Not for _all the tea in China_
Less common idioms include:
- _Safe as houses_
- Very safe and secure.
## Idioms which have unclear meaning
Articles by [Oxfam](223578) and the [BBC](3374) have said that many idioms in English are unclear, or [ambiguous](41695). Many are understood differently in different countries. Many of the examples are taken from face-to-face talk, but may also apply in written reports.
### Examples
- _Satisfactory_ (in a report, or in an assessment) might mean _not_ satisfactory.
- _I hear what you say_. Might mean _I'm listening_, but more likely _I totally disagree_.
- _With the greatest respect_. May mean _You are quite wrong_. 68% of British thought it meant "I think you are an idiot", whereas 49% of Americans thought it meant "I am listening to you".
- _I'll bear it in mind_. In a survey 55% of British thought it meant _I've forgotten it already_. 43% of Americans thought it meant _I will probably do it_.
Vocables are sounds that are not proper words, but mean something, and are often ambiguous. One is a long drawn-out sound _hmmmmmm_.
One suggestion is that these idioms are used to smooth over difficult areas in social interaction. They cover passive-aggressive statements which might cause more conflict if openly expressed.
## Related pages
- [Proverb](38041)
|
An **idiom** is a common phrase which means something different from its literal meaning but can be understood because of their popular use.
Idioms are difficult for someone not good at speaking the language. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom _shape up or ship out_, which is like saying _improve your behavior or leave if you don't_, might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people.
Idioms are not the same thing as slang. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known to almost everyone. Slang is usually special words, or special meanings of normal words that are known only to a particular group of people.
To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture from which the idiom comes.
To know the history of an idiom can be useful and interesting. For example, most native British English speakers know that "No room to swing a cat" means "there was not much space" and can use the idiom properly. However, few know this is because 200 years ago sailors were punished by being whipped with a "cat o' nine tails". A big space was cleared on the ship so that the person doing the whipping had room to _swing the cat_.
An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of each word taken separately. The linguist's term for the real meaning of an idiom is the ***subtext***.
## Definition
Idioms are phrases or expressions that have a figurative meaning different from their literal interpretation. They are commonly used in everyday language to convey a specific idea, often with cultural or historical significance. Idioms are not meant to be taken literally, and their meaning can be understood only by familiarizing oneself with their usage and context.
## Some common idioms
- _Break a leg_
- A way to wish someone good luck.
- _To live it up_
- To enjoy life, to live widely
- _To kick the bucket_
- To die.
- _Shape up or ship out_
- Used to tell someone that they should leave if they don't improve their behavior or performance
- _Learn the ropes_
- Learn and often perfect the skills of a craft, job, etc.
- _Mad as a hatter
- Mentally unstable, especially as the result of poisoning.
- _To shed crocodile tears_
- To cry about something but without actually caring.
- _Wild goose chase_
- A useless journey or pursuit.
- _Nothing burger_
- An idea or promise without substance_
- _There's no room to swing a cat_
- There is not a lot of space.
- _To pay through the nose_
- To pay a lot of money, more than is normal.
- _Cost an arm and a leg_
- Be extremely expensive.
- _To bark up the wrong tree_
- To choose the wrong course of action.
- _To spill the beans_
- To tell a secret.
- _It's raining cats and dogs_
- It's raining heavily.
- _To get into hot water_
- To get into trouble.
- _Skate on thin ice_
- To disregard caution.
- _Chicken-hearted_
- Frightened or cowardly
- _To chicken out_
- Not doing a thing, because of fear.
- _Top dog_
- Leader.
- _To smell a rat_
- To think that something is wrong.
- _To give up_
- To quit.
- _To give up on_
- To stop believing in something or someone.
- _I could eat a horse_
- I am very hungry.
- _To be on top of the world_
- To be really happy.
- _Once in a blue moon_
- Rarely
- _Wouldn't touch with a ten-foot pole!_ (Or _barge pole_ in British English)
- Not wanting anything to do with something or someone.
- _Avoid like the plague_
- Avoid at any cost.
- _Miss the boat_
- Be too late for a chance or opportunity.
- _Child's play_
- Easy to do.
- _Cakewalk_
- Something easy to accomplish.
- _Chinese puzzle_
- Extremely difficult task.
- _Castle in the clouds_ or _pie in the sky_
- An impossible or improbable dream, project, etc.
- _Hit the sack_
- To go to bed
- _Get\give the sack_
- Dismiss or be dismissed from one's employment.
- _The whole nine yards_
- Everything
- _Bells and whistles_
- All the unnecessary luxuries, features, etc
- _Turn a blind eye \ deaf ear_
- To ignore.
- _Cry wolf_
- Report a false emergency.
- One's _cup of tea_
- What someone prefers.
- Not for _all the tea in China_
Less common idioms include:
- _Safe as houses_
- Very safe and secure.
## Idioms which have unclear meaning
Articles by Oxfam and the BBC have said that many idioms in English are unclear, or ambiguous. Many are understood differently in different countries. Many of the examples are taken from face-to-face talk, but may also apply in written reports.
### Examples
- _Satisfactory_ (in a report, or in an assessment) might mean _not_ satisfactory.
- _I hear what you say_. Might mean _I'm listening_, but more likely _I totally disagree_.
- _With the greatest respect_. May mean _You are quite wrong_. 68% of British thought it meant "I think you are an idiot", whereas 49% of Americans thought it meant "I am listening to you".
- _I'll bear it in mind_. In a survey 55% of British thought it meant _I've forgotten it already_. 43% of Americans thought it meant _I will probably do it_.
Vocables are sounds that are not proper words, but mean something, and are often ambiguous. One is a long drawn-out sound _hmmmmmm_.
One suggestion is that these idioms are used to smooth over difficult areas in social interaction. They cover passive-aggressive statements which might cause more conflict if openly expressed.
## Related pages
- Proverb
|
high
| false
| false
|
373
|
IELTS
|
The **International English Language Testing System** (IELTS) tests how fluent you are in the [English language](2843). People who take the test take the Academic Module or the General Training Module. The academic one is for people who want to go to university. The general one is for people who want to do other training or want to get work experience. People who want to emigrate to a country that uses English also take the general one.
Most universities in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States accept the IELTS. Many professional companies do as well.
## Other websites
- [IELTS Web Site](http://www.ielts.org/)
- [IELTS Exams](http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-ielts.htm)
|
The **International English Language Testing System** (IELTS) tests how fluent you are in the English language. People who take the test take the Academic Module or the General Training Module. The academic one is for people who want to go to university. The general one is for people who want to do other training or want to get work experience. People who want to emigrate to a country that uses English also take the general one.
Most universities in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States accept the IELTS. Many professional companies do as well.
## Other websites
- IELTS Web Site
- IELTS Exams
|
medium
| false
| false
|
378
|
Ink
|
**Ink** is a [liquid](7870) that is used to write, draw, print, or make marks. The word ink is from Latin and means "colored water". Ink is used in [pen](7085)s, in some computer printers, and in [printing press](32435)es. In some countries, people write by using ink and [brush](6057)es. People usually write or print using black ink, but ink can be any [color](2083). The first ink was used in [Egypt](248) about 2600 BC.
The first inks were carbon inks, made from soot, which is 80% [carbon](4887), water and [gum arabic](442124). Red ink would need [iron oxide](56026) (such as haematite) from ground rocks instead of soot. Later, in Europe, people used iron [gall](137789) ink. This is the kind of ink [Johann Sebastian Bach](4463) and [Leonardo da Vinci](4654) used. Now ink colours are produced by man-made [dye](3883)s.
A disadvantage of many kinds of ink is that they may smudge when wet, spoiling the picture or writing. If water-based ink is used, the writing situation needs to be stable, with the writer seated at a table. Ink in a [ballpoint pen](105502) (biro) is a kind of [gel](180122). It is held in a thin long [cylinder](11025) (tube) inside the pen. The ink does not fall out of the cylinder as it sticks to the sides of the tube. Therefore, ballpoint pens can be used in a wider range of circumstances compared to water-based inks.
## References
- .
|
**Ink** is a liquid that is used to write, draw, print, or make marks. The word ink is from Latin and means "colored water". Ink is used in pens, in some computer printers, and in printing presses. In some countries, people write by using ink and brushes. People usually write or print using black ink, but ink can be any color. The first ink was used in Egypt about 2600 BC.
The first inks were carbon inks, made from soot, which is 80% carbon, water and gum arabic. Red ink would need iron oxide (such as haematite) from ground rocks instead of soot. Later, in Europe, people used iron gall ink. This is the kind of ink Johann Sebastian Bach and Leonardo da Vinci used. Now ink colours are produced by man-made dyes.
A disadvantage of many kinds of ink is that they may smudge when wet, spoiling the picture or writing. If water-based ink is used, the writing situation needs to be stable, with the writer seated at a table. Ink in a ballpoint pen (biro) is a kind of gel. It is held in a thin long cylinder (tube) inside the pen. The ink does not fall out of the cylinder as it sticks to the sides of the tube. Therefore, ballpoint pens can be used in a wider range of circumstances compared to water-based inks.
## References
- .
|
medium
| false
| false
|
381
|
Inch
|
The **inch** is a unit of [length](7954) in the Imperial system and the [United States customary system](876). The [abbreviation](32) for inches is **in** or **"**. There are 12 inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54 [centimetre](9092)s.
The word "inch" came from [Middle English](29589) _unche_, which came from [Old English](48111) _ynce_, from [Latin](6592) _uncia_ meaning "a twelfth part".
An **inch** (symbol: in or ″) is a fundamental unit of length in the imperial and United States customary measurement systems. While most of the world has adopted the metric system, inches remain the standard for many applications in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
## History
The inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the [United States](219587), the [United Kingdom](856), [South Africa](349565), [Australia](27), [New Zealand](5072) and [Canada](219589). The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 [metre](518)s. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.
## Usage
In [Britain](856) and the [United States](219587), people use inches more than they use [millimetre](12421)s or [centimetre](9092)s. In the rest of the world, [international units](3222) are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.
In the United Kingdom, [road signs](115942) that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a [tunnel](8152) are required to be in feet and inches. [Theme park](28057)s and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their [height](348) in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in [metric](308437) measurements only.
In Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to [Americanized](348271) phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.
In the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.
Other [Commonwealth](31668) countries, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and [Jamaica](11218) use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community.
## Length
|International|[Thou](415588)|Inch|[Foot](22673)|Yard|[Centimetre](9092)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Inch|1000|1|||2.54|
|
The **inch** is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is **in** or **"**. There are 12 inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54 centimetres.
The word "inch" came from Middle English _unche_, which came from Old English _ynce_, from Latin _uncia_ meaning "a twelfth part".
An **inch** (symbol: in or ″) is a fundamental unit of length in the imperial and United States customary measurement systems. While most of the world has adopted the metric system, inches remain the standard for many applications in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
## History
The inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.
## Usage
In Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.
In the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only.
In Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.
In the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.
Other Commonwealth countries, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community.
## Length
|International|Thou|Inch|Foot|Yard|Centimetre|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Inch|1000|1|||2.54|
|
high
| false
| false
|
384
|
Pint
|
The **pint** (abbreviated **pt**) is a unit of volume in [imperial units](45896) and [United States customary units](876). There are three types of pints used in different countries. An imperial pint and US pint both equal of a quart and of a gallon.
An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.
## Imperial Pint
The imperial pint is the pint used in [England](3047), [Canada](219589), [Ireland](5074), and Burma. The unit may appear in other [Commonwealth](31668). Confusion in Canada often arises as liquids are occasionally sold in U.S. pints, near the border, although the official and only pint that is legal in Canada is the imperial pint. The imperial system has no dry pint and volume in dry units, since solid objects are measured by mass. 1 imperial pint equals 568,261.25 mm<sup>3</sup>.
An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.
|Units|Gallons|U.S. Fluid Ounces|U.S. Pints|Millilitres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Pint||19.2152|1.20095|568.26125|
## US Wet Pint
The US wet pint, or more commonly 'pint', is the unit used to measure volume in the [United States](219587). It is more common than the dry pint which is used for non-liquid volume measurements. 1 US pint is exactly equal to 473,176.473 mm<sup>3</sup>, defined by the international yard and pound agreement.
|Units|Fluid ounces|Gills|Cups|Pints|Quarts|Gallons|Imperial pints|Millilitres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Pint|16|4|2|1|||0.832674|473.176473|
## US Dry Pint
The US dry pint was a unit used for measuring the volume of solid objects instead of mass or quantity.
|Units|dry quarts|dry gallons|bushels|dry hogshead|US wet pints|imperial pints|millilitres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Pint|||||≈1.16|≈0.97|550.6104713575|
## Usage
- The wet U.S. pint is still commonly used in the United States.
- In Canada, it is commonly used for alcohol although a pint can vary from 12 fl oz to 20 fl oz and is sometimes incorrectly given in US fl oz.
- In England and Ireland, only milk and pure ethanol are sold in pints; however, milk must have litres next to pints.
- In England, milk is often sold in metric quantities near to imperial pints.
|
The **pint** (abbreviated **pt**) is a unit of volume in imperial units and United States customary units. There are three types of pints used in different countries. An imperial pint and US pint both equal of a quart and of a gallon.
An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.
## Imperial Pint
The imperial pint is the pint used in England, Canada, Ireland, and Burma. The unit may appear in other Commonwealth. Confusion in Canada often arises as liquids are occasionally sold in U.S. pints, near the border, although the official and only pint that is legal in Canada is the imperial pint. The imperial system has no dry pint and volume in dry units, since solid objects are measured by mass. 1 imperial pint equals 568,261.25 mm<sup>3</sup>.
An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.
|Units|Gallons|U.S. Fluid Ounces|U.S. Pints|Millilitres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Pint||19.2152|1.20095|568.26125|
## US Wet Pint
The US wet pint, or more commonly 'pint', is the unit used to measure volume in the United States. It is more common than the dry pint which is used for non-liquid volume measurements. 1 US pint is exactly equal to 473,176.473 mm<sup>3</sup>, defined by the international yard and pound agreement.
|Units|Fluid ounces|Gills|Cups|Pints|Quarts|Gallons|Imperial pints|Millilitres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Pint|16|4|2|1|||0.832674|473.176473|
## US Dry Pint
The US dry pint was a unit used for measuring the volume of solid objects instead of mass or quantity.
|Units|dry quarts|dry gallons|bushels|dry hogshead|US wet pints|imperial pints|millilitres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Pint|||||≈1.16|≈0.97|550.6104713575|
## Usage
- The wet U.S. pint is still commonly used in the United States.
- In Canada, it is commonly used for alcohol although a pint can vary from 12 fl oz to 20 fl oz and is sometimes incorrectly given in US fl oz.
- In England and Ireland, only milk and pure ethanol are sold in pints; however, milk must have litres next to pints.
- In England, milk is often sold in metric quantities near to imperial pints.
|
high
| false
| false
|
387
|
Italian
|
The word **Italian** may mean:
- Anything related to the country of [Italy](363)
- [Italians](388), people of Italy
- Italian cuisine, food of Italy
- [Italian language](8249)
|
The word **Italian** may mean:
- Anything related to the country of Italy
- Italians, people of Italy
- Italian cuisine, food of Italy
- Italian language
|
high
| false
| false
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.